◎ 許麗珠
楔子
隔壁家的欣瑜是個乖巧、害羞的六歲孩子,整天在幼稚園中除了偶爾和老師說說話,大部份的時間都一個人安安靜靜地做老師指定的活動,或在教室的閱讀角(Reading Corner)閱讀童書。即使在戶外玩耍,她也只和固定的一、兩個朋友一起玩。欣瑜告訴媽媽,她最討厭每天下午的英文遊戲或唱遊活動,因為,英文老師總是比較喜歡愛表現的小朋友,也老是誇獎他們比較聰明。此外,欣瑜也最怕老師要她用英文發問或回答問題,因為她不喜歡、也不敢在很多小朋友面前說英文。重視英語教育的媽媽不僅擔心欣瑜會因為個性內向,少掉很多練習說英語的機會,造成她英文口語能力的發展比別的小朋友差,也擔心欣瑜會因此而變得缺乏自信。尤其欣瑜今年就要上小學了,媽媽越來越憂慮內向的她可能無法適應國小強調聽力及口語訓練的英語課程。
其實,欣瑜的媽媽毋需過度擔憂,因為個性「內向」與否並不是決定英文口語學習成效唯一的因素,更不是絕對的關鍵因素!
「外向」、「內向」的定義
我們常用「外向」或「內向」來形容人的個性,對「外向」、「內向」這兩個詞彙也存在許多刻板印象。「外向」通常表示比較活潑、愛說話、喜歡社交活動,也善於拓展人際關係;相反地,「內向」給人感覺是比較沈默寡言,不善交際應酬,喜歡閱讀等這類的靜態活動。心理學家 Eysenck (1965, pp.59-60)點出典型「外向」的人除了有上述特質外,還包括不喜歡獨自讀書、喜歡冒險、行事較為衝動等;而典型「內向」的人則做事較有計畫、喜歡有條有理的生活模式。
「外向」和「內向」雖然是相對的兩個詞,但人的個性很少是極度地外向或內向。若把這兩個相對的詞視為一條直線的兩個端點,一般人的個性大都會落於這條直線上的某一點,例如被視為「外向」的人可能只是比較偏向「外向」的端點,反之亦然。心理學家榮格(Carl Gustav Jung, 1875-1961)認為,雖然人的個性可能傾向於「外向」或「內向」,但是每個人其實都同時擁有不同程度的「外向」或「內向」的許多特質。
「外向」、「內向」與語言學習成效的關係
個性「外向」、「內向」和英語學習成效之間的關係是否有決定性的影響,Ellis (1994)提出最主要且常見的兩項假設:一是「外向」的人在學語言時,溝通技巧比「內向」的人好;二是「內向」的人,其「學術語言認知能力」 (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency)[1]發展較佳。這兩項假設所持的理由分別是:「外向」的人因為喜好交際,和別人的互動比較多,在學習語言時不僅能獲得較多的「語料輸入」(linguistic input),且有較多的口語練習機會,因此,在英語口語學習速度上會比「內向」的人來得快,且口語表現也比較好。而「內向」的人因為比較喜歡從事「閱讀」這類靜態活動,由此可推論他們在「學術研究」上的表現相對較佳。
然而,這兩項假設,以第一項假設獲得較多的研究證實,第二項假設則相對缺乏實證研究的支持。Strong (1983)分析十二個探索「外向」相關特點和語言學習成效的關聯性研究,發現其中有六個研究的結論皆為──「外向」的學習者在所謂「自然的語言溝通 (natural communicative language)[2]」的層面表現較佳。然而,Strong同時也發現他所分析的研究中,多數研究並無法證實第二項假設,換言之,性格「內向」與否和學術表現並無絕對的關聯。但有趣的是,也有研究指出性格「外向」的學習者在口語表現上並沒有比較好。Busch (1982)以在日本學英文的日本青少年及成人為受試者來研究性格「外向」、「內向」是否會影響語言學習成效。她發現性格外向和口語面試測驗成績並無明顯的關聯性,和學習者的寫作測驗分數高低也沒有顯著的相關。此外,她也找不出有力證據支持性格內向的特點能幫助學習者發展學術語言能力。
Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991, pp.185-6)曾提出,許多「外向」、「內向」的相關研究多半有研究方法上的問題(例如:用來檢測學習者屬外向或內向的「Eysenck外向/內向量表」[3]的測量精確度問題等)。所以,綜觀這些相關研究並無一致的結論,雖然「外向」的人可能較積極主動地參與口語練習活動,但就像Ellis (1994, p521)所說的,「學生在課堂上熱烈參與口語活動,並不保證有高學習成效。」外向的人比較愛說話、愛表現,也許可以藉由測驗了解外向學習者的口語能力,但是,內向的學習者本身就不喜言語,若要從口語表現,斷定其口語能力不佳,則恐有欠深入考量。
內向者英文口語能力差?較無自信?
前言中提到,媽媽擔憂欣瑜可能會因內向而英語口語能力發展較差,進而缺乏自信。雖然Strong (1983)的研究指出外向特質和「自然的語言溝通」有關聯性,但是若以此推論外向學習者的口語能力就比較好,或說內向學習者的口語能力就絕對不好,則不妥。我們只能說不管是外向或內向的學習者,皆各有其學習特點,這些不同的特點會在學習者做不同的語言學習活動時,有不同的加分效果。
再者,口語表現差也許會讓學生產生低成就感,而長期的低成就感可能導致學習者缺乏自信,但性格「外向」、「內向」並不是判別其擁有自信與否的根據,內向者沈默寡言不見得是因為缺乏自信。美國學者Douglas Brown (2000)也指出,「外向的人不一定都是愛講話的大嘴巴,他/她之所以會比較活潑、喜好交際是因為他/她必須藉由和別人的互動來增強自我(ego)以及獲得自尊和完整(wholeness)的感覺;相對地,內向的人比較內斂、安靜,是因為他/她的性格擁有內在力量,不須從外界獲取對自我的認同和成就感。」Brown的看法提供我們另一個有趣的思考角度。
「外向」、「內向」的認定標準與文化有關
此外,值得一提的是,「外向」、「內向」的認定也和文化背景有關。例如:美國人的教育強調個人的價值,孩子從小被教導及鼓勵將自己的想法、意見表達出來。在課堂上,常見熱烈的討論活動,老師除了鼓勵學生舉手發言外,也鼓勵分享不同的意見;孩子在課堂上發言通常被視為理所當然,但若有孩童在課堂上較少分享個人看法時,多半會被視為「內向」。但在台灣,喜愛在課堂上發言的孩子,就可能被師長視為「外向」,也有可能被同儕認為「愛現」、不懂謙虛。簡單地說,「外向」、「內向」的認定標準,並非放諸四海而皆準的。
如何引導內向孩子開口說英語
個性內向與否和英語口語能力的良莠,不見得有絕對的關聯,但語言學習能儘量開口說,卻是學習成功的要件。因此,教師必須鼓勵「內向」的學生在英語課堂上多開口,增加其口語練習的機會,藉此提高口語表達的流暢度和溝通技巧。那麼要如何引導內向的孩子多開口呢?以下提供幾項活動與老師們分享。
1.有技巧性地分組,讓內向的孩子和好友在同一組練習。
內向的孩子對負面的情感因素特別敏感(例如緊張、焦慮、怕丟臉等),因此,口語練習活動設計應以減少內向孩子的焦慮為原則。當內向的孩子尚未習慣獨自在眾多同學面前表達看法之前,老師可考慮讓他/她和一至二位好友同組,以分組的方式,讓他和同儕一同表演簡短的律動唱遊、參加遊戲比賽或單句故事接龍等。分組的目的是為讓孩子透過與熟悉的隊友合作,有機會開口說英文。要注意的是,組員不可過多(二至三人最好),如此每位學生口語練習的機會才多,但也要避免分組活動佔用課堂大部份的時間。
2.鼓勵孩子大聲朗讀文句簡短且重覆性高的英文故事。
老師可帶領內向的孩子或讓其獨自朗讀字句簡短,但重覆性高的英文故事,鼓勵孩子大聲朗讀,並具體讚美孩子的表現(如發音很正確、語調很好聽等)。通常,語句簡短但重覆性高的故事較容易朗朗上口,孩子在朗讀時比較不會產生挫折感,這類故事很容易在英文繪本中找到。
3.設計節奏性強、可配合簡單肢體動作的句型教學。
利用響板、彈指等易於製造節奏的工具,再加上簡單的肢體動作,鼓勵內向的孩子先從肢體動作模仿起,減低對語言的恐懼後,再進而鼓勵孩子開口練習。
4.讓孩子利用布偶或玩具說故事。
內向孩子常未開口先臉紅,教師可讓孩子帶喜歡的布偶或玩具到課堂上,鼓勵他「代替」布偶或玩具說故事。或者,老師可利用孩子帶來的玩偶,用誇張的語氣講個簡單的故事,製造愉快的教室氣氛,讓玩偶成為活動的主角,然後再邀請孩子編個故事或介紹他的玩偶。
以上活動舉隅,其教學設計主要目的是要引導內向孩子開口,皆以減低內向孩子的焦慮為主。當內向孩子逐漸能在同學面前表達個人看法時,便可鼓勵其參加角色扮演、演說或辯論等活動。然而,適當的活動設計固然重要,但最關鍵的,還是老師的態度。老師溫和的語氣、言語的鼓勵及耐心更能引導內向的孩子開口。此外,雖然喜好表現、善說話的學生還是比較容易受到注意,但學校英語教師在評量學生的英語口語能力時,還是要儘量避免對學生有「說得『少』即代表能力不好」這種先入為主的印象。
結論
內向孩子在做口語練習活動時,很有可能因為焦慮而影響其表現,因此,老師們在設計口語教學活動時,儘量以漸進的方式帶領,例如先從大團體唱遊活動開始,然後再進行小組教學活動,進而引導孩子做個別表達。老師們除了注意自己的態度外,也必須教導及提醒孩子們應對別人的表現給予肯定及鼓勵,同儕的肯定及讚美常是孩子安全感及成就感的主要來源。當然,影響語言學習的因素涵蓋很廣,個性「外向」或「內向」不是決定孩子英語口語能力好壞的關鍵因素,但英語口語能力是可以透過教師的訓練而培養的。總之,與其憂慮孩子的個性是否會影響英語學習,不如致力讓孩子的性格成長更趨健全!
參考書目
* Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. (4th ed.). Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
* Busch, D. (1982). Introversion-extroversion and the EFL proficiency of Japanese students. Language Learning 32: 109-132.
* Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Eysenck, H. J. (1965). Fact and Fiction in Psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
* Larsen-Freeman, D. & Long, M. (1991). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London: Longman Group UK Limited.
* Strong, M. H. (1983). Social styles and second language acquisition of Spanish-speaking kindergartners, TESOL Quarterly, 17, 2, 241-58.
作者簡介
◎ 美國哥倫比亞大學教師學院英語教學碩士
◎ 國立暨南國際大學外文系專任講師、國立中興大學外文系兼任講師
[1] Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency是Cummins (1980; 1981)所提出,意指學生為了完成課業所需的特殊第二語能力。這能力包括能在缺乏上下文情境(context-reduced)的情況下,也能精確地溝通。
[2] Natural Communicative Language指在做人際溝通時所使用的語言,例如朋友間的閒聊。
[3] 「Eysenck內向/外向量表」(Eysenck's Introversion-Extroversion Scale)是心理學家Eysenck所設計用來檢測性格傾向的測量工具,其內容包含24題和情境或感受有關的是非題。受測者依其主觀判斷回答問題,例如是否常做主觀或客觀決定、衝動或內斂及其行為的可預測性等。檢測者依其答案分析其性格傾向。此量表的缺點有二:(一)無法精確地測量出性格傾向的程度、(二)無法得知受測者主觀的回答是否有客觀地反應事實。
2007年4月27日星期五
相信孩子可以寫作──兒童英文寫作教學經驗分享
◎ 陳麗春
您相信國小兒童可以學會寫英文作文嗎?兒童學習英語多久之後才能開始訓練寫作?以及要如何訓練寫作?寫作訓練對兒童英語學習有幫助嗎?本文中,筆者將與您分享八年來從事兒童英文寫作教學的理念與經驗,期能與老師們交流,幫助更多老師進行兒童英文寫作教學。
話說從頭──兒童雙語教學先鋒部隊
民國七十六年,筆者為了讓兒女有一個高品質的學習環境,離開執教五年的市立國中,來到國立科學工業園區實驗高中任教,當時的實中國小部在校長張玉成先生的領導之下,開始了一項史無前例的國小兒童雙語教學實驗:讓四年級的一百八十位學生開始學習英語。當時筆者與另兩位高中英文老師便奮勇地一同加入了這項教學計劃的行列。
俗話說:「老大照書養,老二照豬養」。由於無先例可循,我們三個臭皮匠於是根據英語教學專家的建議,輔以教學理論書籍學來的觀念,將教學實驗的目標設定在「聽說為主,讀寫為輔」(這和目前國內國小英語教學的課程目標有點類似)。然而,由於國小兒童心智尚未成熟,學生並沒有心理準備要認真地學好英語,學英語純粹是好玩而已,而學生的家長也因認為當時的課程屬於實驗性質,只給予精神上的支持,大多數家長尚未真正協助孩子學習英語。此外,加上課程時間是利用早自修和午休時段來上課,效果自然大打折扣。以上種種因素讓第一次的實驗教學無法密切配合,這批國小兒童在畢業時只具初級的口說能力及聽力成就,並不具備認字閱讀或寫作的能力。
「兒童英文寫作教學」的緣起
民國八十五年,本校國小部在當時校長戴禮明女士主持之下,又開始另一階段的兒童英語教學實驗。這一次有了清華大學外語系Dr. Jones的支持與指導,我們採用「全語言教學觀」來進行教學實驗。課程一開始,便著重訓練英語的整體能力,以「聽、說、讀、寫並重」為教學前提,從本校國小四年級兩百八十位學生開始,逐年全面實行英語教學,延續至今。
由於有第一次未盡成功的經驗,我們在第二次實驗開始前,即有充份的討論與準備,並修正第一次英語教學實驗的缺點,後來終於有個令人滿意的開始,例如:
一、 所有英語課都在正常上課時間內教學,不再是早自修、午休或聯課活動的時間,且並無安排額外的課外教學時數;
二、 有定期正式的紙筆測驗,如月考;
三、 在月考成績單上登錄成績,但不正式列入學習成績平均內;
四、 學生一開始即要學習英文字母及拼音,並考聽寫生字。
以上的規劃皆使學生們較能積極接受學習英語的重要性,並且主動地學習。而此時,學生家長也不只是在精神上支持鼓勵孩子了,他們也會在日常生活中實際要求孩子認真地學習英語。
根據當時的問卷調查,有將近二分之一的四年級學生已或多或少學過英語,不過大多數只是很粗淺地學習「聽」與「說」,或只認得英文字母而已。 Dr. Jones稱他們為「假的初學者」(false beginners)。然而,我們的實驗教學是依循「全語言教學觀」,以「讀寫」為教學目標,那麼老師要如何讓這些學生進入英語的讀寫世界呢?
除了讓學生背生字、練習聽與說之外,那時我們也不斷地尋找合適的教材來配合教學,但在坊間幾乎找不到適合的兒童英文寫作教材,讓老師們相當傷腦筋!某天,筆者經過雙語部辦公室時,看到公佈欄上有雙語部學生的獎狀,上面除了有雙語的名字、班級之外,還有學生的嗜好、喜歡的顏色或喜歡的食物名稱,這給了筆者教學方向的新靈感!從此,筆者便開始了「兒童英文寫作」教學的歷程,執行至今已有八年。
在第二次教學實驗的三年當中,老師們合作無間,讓一切能順利進行,因此教學成果相當不錯且具說服力。舉例來說,這批國小學生在三年的學習後,其學習成果可以和本校國中二年級學生相等,甚至略勝一籌。雖然這批學生在國中階段沒有進一步的追蹤實驗,但至今他們有一部份是本校高中部二年級的學生,其中有兩班的英文科目仍由筆者任教,故可以讓筆者有機會觀察他們英語能力的增長進度,或發現是否有哪些特殊學習困難等。在這方面,筆者正努力地觀察與研究,希望以後有機會再向讀者們分享。
不一樣的教學歷程
在第二次的兒童英語教學實驗過程中,經由訓練學生寫作,筆者觀察到學生其它的英語能力也跟著寫作能力有所成長,雖然過程有艱辛的一面,但看到教學的成果漸漸顯露出來,也使筆者喜愛上兒童英文寫作的教學工作。看著學生的成長,從初級的看圖造句、看圖寫作,最後進階到高中程度的引導寫作,筆者在英文寫作教學上有著深刻的體驗與些許的成就感。
理論上,「全語言教學觀」相信,兒童只要會聽和認得約一百個字彙及少量的句子,就可以經由引導進入寫作,開始利用文字及圖像來表情達意,使文字成為與人溝通的工具。在這過程中,兒童因為有機會運用學過的字彙和句型,可以加深對英語的學習與認識,進而加強學習英語的動機,培養主動使用語言的能力,這一段過程是最難能可貴的,寫作成果還只是次要的副產品而已。
以下筆者簡單說明教學的過程。一開始,筆者給學生的寫作題目是「關於自己」,學生先以填充方式練習寫作,並可在作品上畫自畫像、或貼自己的照片。第二個題目是關於「衣著」,學生運用已學過的顏色與衣著字彙和句型,同時畫出他們所寫的情境。其後的寫作題目,則多與校園生活、學習經驗及學過的背景知識有關,如My Mother、My Father's Car、My Uncle、My Pet、My Room等等,並有看圖造句的練習。
根據筆者觀察,四年級學生經過五、六次填充形式的寫作練習之後,三個月後即能掌握簡單的句型,並能注意到不同的字彙與句型的配合,例如He is、She is、We are、He lives、We have、She likes等的運用,而且比起一般國中生較少有文法錯誤,這應是從最基礎文法紮實的練習中所奠定的能力。
全語言教學觀主張讓學生大量閱讀,透過大量的閱讀可使學生增進寫作能力。然而,在當時實驗期間,筆者在坊間所能找到最簡單的英文讀本又非常有限,因此只好自己蒐集合適的圖畫,並寫一些簡單的短文,將短文打字列印在彩色海報紙上,加以護貝後,放在班級裡充當「補充讀本」使用。班上的導師及某些家長,會抽空督促學生在早自習時間讀「補充讀本」一至二篇,藉以增強其閱讀能力,並儲備英文寫作的「能量」。回想當時,為了製作讀本,筆者幾乎每天挑燈夜戰,但是,看到一張張圖文並茂的「作品」出籠時,多少有一些成就感,而這群學生也因為多了一些閱讀資源,得以在寫作時能超越課本所教授的英語字彙及句型,寫出內容比較豐富的文章。由此可見,閱讀量之於寫作是不容小覷的。
令人振奮的實驗成果
筆者發現國小兒童在寫作上,遠比國中生願意發表自我的見解,兒童及早開始訓練寫作,不但在英語學習上有較好的效果,在對英語學習的喜愛程度也會比國中生高。最重要的是,在英語閱讀及寫作學習上,兒童比較能接受「把英語當成國語來讀」的觀念。舉例來說,國語課要寫生詞、造句、作文、考生詞和句子,英語課也必須如此地學習,才有可能把英語學好。兒童英語教學雖然講究英語溝通的能力,不大強調文法,但是多練習造句或寫作,也等於增強文法及句型結構概念,假以時日,學生不知不覺就能學會課堂中所學的英語。
兒童英文寫作教學實驗的成果中,還有一點令人振奮的是,這批學生國小畢業時已達到當時國二上學期學生的英語能力了!所以,他們能花較多時間來讀數學、理化,或其它較難的科目,不少學生更因此在升高中的學測考試中得到優異的總分,而能如願地考取本校高中。不過雖然這些學生在英語能力上佔優勢(例如有四分之一的學生已通過中級的全民英檢、另四分之一的學生也通過中級英檢第一階段的聽力及筆試),但他們大多數也只是把英語視為一種「溝通工具」而已,還不是真正想深入研究英語呢!所以他們如果更認真學習,其學習成就可能更高。
相信學生可以寫作
八年來筆者陸續都有教授國小兒童英語的機會,筆者所教的學生中,最小的是一位國小一年級的小女生,每當她逐步地完成寫作教材Keypals的看圖造句練習時,她慧黠的笑容,在在顯示出她的滿足與驕傲。筆者將她的作品貼在公佈欄上,每次她的媽媽、阿公或阿嬤來接她時,她總是不會忘記叫他們看她的作品。筆者一直認為,只要老師相信學生能夠達到老師所指定的任務,學生就一定可以達到英文寫作學習的目標!
最後,筆者給老師們一點小小的建議:「要相信學生、相信自己,並相信寫作教學所能帶給學生的正面、積極的影響!」讓我們一同來勇於嘗試兒童英文寫作教學,摒除疑慮,教教看就知道!
您相信國小兒童可以學會寫英文作文嗎?兒童學習英語多久之後才能開始訓練寫作?以及要如何訓練寫作?寫作訓練對兒童英語學習有幫助嗎?本文中,筆者將與您分享八年來從事兒童英文寫作教學的理念與經驗,期能與老師們交流,幫助更多老師進行兒童英文寫作教學。
話說從頭──兒童雙語教學先鋒部隊
民國七十六年,筆者為了讓兒女有一個高品質的學習環境,離開執教五年的市立國中,來到國立科學工業園區實驗高中任教,當時的實中國小部在校長張玉成先生的領導之下,開始了一項史無前例的國小兒童雙語教學實驗:讓四年級的一百八十位學生開始學習英語。當時筆者與另兩位高中英文老師便奮勇地一同加入了這項教學計劃的行列。
俗話說:「老大照書養,老二照豬養」。由於無先例可循,我們三個臭皮匠於是根據英語教學專家的建議,輔以教學理論書籍學來的觀念,將教學實驗的目標設定在「聽說為主,讀寫為輔」(這和目前國內國小英語教學的課程目標有點類似)。然而,由於國小兒童心智尚未成熟,學生並沒有心理準備要認真地學好英語,學英語純粹是好玩而已,而學生的家長也因認為當時的課程屬於實驗性質,只給予精神上的支持,大多數家長尚未真正協助孩子學習英語。此外,加上課程時間是利用早自修和午休時段來上課,效果自然大打折扣。以上種種因素讓第一次的實驗教學無法密切配合,這批國小兒童在畢業時只具初級的口說能力及聽力成就,並不具備認字閱讀或寫作的能力。
「兒童英文寫作教學」的緣起
民國八十五年,本校國小部在當時校長戴禮明女士主持之下,又開始另一階段的兒童英語教學實驗。這一次有了清華大學外語系Dr. Jones的支持與指導,我們採用「全語言教學觀」來進行教學實驗。課程一開始,便著重訓練英語的整體能力,以「聽、說、讀、寫並重」為教學前提,從本校國小四年級兩百八十位學生開始,逐年全面實行英語教學,延續至今。
由於有第一次未盡成功的經驗,我們在第二次實驗開始前,即有充份的討論與準備,並修正第一次英語教學實驗的缺點,後來終於有個令人滿意的開始,例如:
一、 所有英語課都在正常上課時間內教學,不再是早自修、午休或聯課活動的時間,且並無安排額外的課外教學時數;
二、 有定期正式的紙筆測驗,如月考;
三、 在月考成績單上登錄成績,但不正式列入學習成績平均內;
四、 學生一開始即要學習英文字母及拼音,並考聽寫生字。
以上的規劃皆使學生們較能積極接受學習英語的重要性,並且主動地學習。而此時,學生家長也不只是在精神上支持鼓勵孩子了,他們也會在日常生活中實際要求孩子認真地學習英語。
根據當時的問卷調查,有將近二分之一的四年級學生已或多或少學過英語,不過大多數只是很粗淺地學習「聽」與「說」,或只認得英文字母而已。 Dr. Jones稱他們為「假的初學者」(false beginners)。然而,我們的實驗教學是依循「全語言教學觀」,以「讀寫」為教學目標,那麼老師要如何讓這些學生進入英語的讀寫世界呢?
除了讓學生背生字、練習聽與說之外,那時我們也不斷地尋找合適的教材來配合教學,但在坊間幾乎找不到適合的兒童英文寫作教材,讓老師們相當傷腦筋!某天,筆者經過雙語部辦公室時,看到公佈欄上有雙語部學生的獎狀,上面除了有雙語的名字、班級之外,還有學生的嗜好、喜歡的顏色或喜歡的食物名稱,這給了筆者教學方向的新靈感!從此,筆者便開始了「兒童英文寫作」教學的歷程,執行至今已有八年。
在第二次教學實驗的三年當中,老師們合作無間,讓一切能順利進行,因此教學成果相當不錯且具說服力。舉例來說,這批國小學生在三年的學習後,其學習成果可以和本校國中二年級學生相等,甚至略勝一籌。雖然這批學生在國中階段沒有進一步的追蹤實驗,但至今他們有一部份是本校高中部二年級的學生,其中有兩班的英文科目仍由筆者任教,故可以讓筆者有機會觀察他們英語能力的增長進度,或發現是否有哪些特殊學習困難等。在這方面,筆者正努力地觀察與研究,希望以後有機會再向讀者們分享。
不一樣的教學歷程
在第二次的兒童英語教學實驗過程中,經由訓練學生寫作,筆者觀察到學生其它的英語能力也跟著寫作能力有所成長,雖然過程有艱辛的一面,但看到教學的成果漸漸顯露出來,也使筆者喜愛上兒童英文寫作的教學工作。看著學生的成長,從初級的看圖造句、看圖寫作,最後進階到高中程度的引導寫作,筆者在英文寫作教學上有著深刻的體驗與些許的成就感。
理論上,「全語言教學觀」相信,兒童只要會聽和認得約一百個字彙及少量的句子,就可以經由引導進入寫作,開始利用文字及圖像來表情達意,使文字成為與人溝通的工具。在這過程中,兒童因為有機會運用學過的字彙和句型,可以加深對英語的學習與認識,進而加強學習英語的動機,培養主動使用語言的能力,這一段過程是最難能可貴的,寫作成果還只是次要的副產品而已。
以下筆者簡單說明教學的過程。一開始,筆者給學生的寫作題目是「關於自己」,學生先以填充方式練習寫作,並可在作品上畫自畫像、或貼自己的照片。第二個題目是關於「衣著」,學生運用已學過的顏色與衣著字彙和句型,同時畫出他們所寫的情境。其後的寫作題目,則多與校園生活、學習經驗及學過的背景知識有關,如My Mother、My Father's Car、My Uncle、My Pet、My Room等等,並有看圖造句的練習。
根據筆者觀察,四年級學生經過五、六次填充形式的寫作練習之後,三個月後即能掌握簡單的句型,並能注意到不同的字彙與句型的配合,例如He is、She is、We are、He lives、We have、She likes等的運用,而且比起一般國中生較少有文法錯誤,這應是從最基礎文法紮實的練習中所奠定的能力。
全語言教學觀主張讓學生大量閱讀,透過大量的閱讀可使學生增進寫作能力。然而,在當時實驗期間,筆者在坊間所能找到最簡單的英文讀本又非常有限,因此只好自己蒐集合適的圖畫,並寫一些簡單的短文,將短文打字列印在彩色海報紙上,加以護貝後,放在班級裡充當「補充讀本」使用。班上的導師及某些家長,會抽空督促學生在早自習時間讀「補充讀本」一至二篇,藉以增強其閱讀能力,並儲備英文寫作的「能量」。回想當時,為了製作讀本,筆者幾乎每天挑燈夜戰,但是,看到一張張圖文並茂的「作品」出籠時,多少有一些成就感,而這群學生也因為多了一些閱讀資源,得以在寫作時能超越課本所教授的英語字彙及句型,寫出內容比較豐富的文章。由此可見,閱讀量之於寫作是不容小覷的。
令人振奮的實驗成果
筆者發現國小兒童在寫作上,遠比國中生願意發表自我的見解,兒童及早開始訓練寫作,不但在英語學習上有較好的效果,在對英語學習的喜愛程度也會比國中生高。最重要的是,在英語閱讀及寫作學習上,兒童比較能接受「把英語當成國語來讀」的觀念。舉例來說,國語課要寫生詞、造句、作文、考生詞和句子,英語課也必須如此地學習,才有可能把英語學好。兒童英語教學雖然講究英語溝通的能力,不大強調文法,但是多練習造句或寫作,也等於增強文法及句型結構概念,假以時日,學生不知不覺就能學會課堂中所學的英語。
兒童英文寫作教學實驗的成果中,還有一點令人振奮的是,這批學生國小畢業時已達到當時國二上學期學生的英語能力了!所以,他們能花較多時間來讀數學、理化,或其它較難的科目,不少學生更因此在升高中的學測考試中得到優異的總分,而能如願地考取本校高中。不過雖然這些學生在英語能力上佔優勢(例如有四分之一的學生已通過中級的全民英檢、另四分之一的學生也通過中級英檢第一階段的聽力及筆試),但他們大多數也只是把英語視為一種「溝通工具」而已,還不是真正想深入研究英語呢!所以他們如果更認真學習,其學習成就可能更高。
相信學生可以寫作
八年來筆者陸續都有教授國小兒童英語的機會,筆者所教的學生中,最小的是一位國小一年級的小女生,每當她逐步地完成寫作教材Keypals的看圖造句練習時,她慧黠的笑容,在在顯示出她的滿足與驕傲。筆者將她的作品貼在公佈欄上,每次她的媽媽、阿公或阿嬤來接她時,她總是不會忘記叫他們看她的作品。筆者一直認為,只要老師相信學生能夠達到老師所指定的任務,學生就一定可以達到英文寫作學習的目標!
最後,筆者給老師們一點小小的建議:「要相信學生、相信自己,並相信寫作教學所能帶給學生的正面、積極的影響!」讓我們一同來勇於嘗試兒童英文寫作教學,摒除疑慮,教教看就知道!
不一樣的英語繪本延伸教學活動
http://www.cavesbooks.com.tw/e_magazine/e_magazine_article.aspx?sn=190&language1=0
............教具製作
──以The Very Hungry Caterpillar為例
◎ 張于玲
楔子
近幾年來,隨著「說故事教學」活動的推薦,艾瑞˙卡爾(Eric Carle)的經典繪本The Very Hungry Caterpillar《好餓好餓的毛毛蟲》已變成台灣英語教學界的「國民教科書」了!因為只要接觸過英語繪本的老師,一定都知曉這本好看又好教的繪本。筆者曾多次參加英語繪本教學研習課程,發現主講者都不約而同地介紹這本書,此外,若你嘗試在網路上鍵入本書書名或作者名做為關鍵字搜尋,那蹦跳出來的一大堆資料必定讓您眼花撩亂,大吃一驚。雖然本書的教學資源已相當豐富,但筆者還是忍不住想要錦上添花,將自己的教學經驗和大家分享,期望有更多愛好繪本的老師,一起來感受使用繪本教學的樂趣,並將繪本的美帶給學生。
本書大意
故事述說著一隻可愛的毛毛蟲,在某一暗夜,頂著月光偷偷地破卵而出,隨即便展開牠豐盛的美食之旅。從週一到週六,牠放縱口慾,嚐盡美味、日日飽餐。結果,真的肚子疼了!還好吃了一片嫩葉,在週日的清晨舒緩了痛楚,之後,牠便漸漸入眠,開始結繭,最後幻化成一隻美麗的花蝴蝶。
書中環繞著「蝴蝶生命週期」(the life circle of butterflies)、「一週七天」(days of the week)、「食物和營養」(food & nutrition)、「計數」(counting)等主題,配合主要句子“On Monday, the caterpillar ate through one apple.”重覆出現,讓學生易學易記。此外,以毛毛蟲為題材的自然生態故事,更是學生好奇與喜愛的主題,也讓本書更適合運用於國小英語教學上。
作者艾瑞‧卡爾介紹
艾瑞‧卡爾(Eric Carle)1929年美國紐約出生,六歲那年隨雙親移居德國,是一位兼具藝術天分與文學才情的兒童文學大師。相信有不少讀者會為他冠上「教育工作者」名號,因為創作超過七十本出版品的他,不少經典作品已翻譯成三十多種語言,發行世界各地,無論是大人或小孩,均能夠從他的圖畫書中得到知識的增長及閱讀的樂趣;而學生的藝術鑑賞能力,也一併能從其圖書插畫中得到涵養與陶冶。艾瑞‧卡爾的作品總會帶來新鮮的賣點和噱頭,如The Very Hungry Caterpillar書籍挖洞設計,給學生手指操弄書的趣味,又或如Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me運用書籍摺頁展開帶給讀者驚喜,加上故事主題常圍繞著可愛動物,圖畫中鑲嵌著簡單的循環字句,使得他的繪本成為校園裡不可或缺的好教材。艾瑞‧卡爾繪畫風格獨特,用色大膽鮮明,所以想要在萬堆書中找出他的作品並不困難。拼貼是他慣用的作畫技巧,至於用來做拼貼的各色圖紙,全都是他隨意大揮彩筆而成的傑作。透過他的巧手層層疊出明亮的圖案,活潑歡欣的閱讀樂趣,從觸及他書本的那一刻起,全然湧現。
主題式教學活動設計
為了使學生更能體會本書內容的趣味,筆者特別根據故事內容及書中主要句型,設計以下幾項延伸教學活動。
活動一:蝴蝶生命週期(the life circle of butterflies)
一、 教學準備:蝴蝶生長階段的各種生命形式閃示圖卡,包括卵(egg)、小毛毛蟲(small caterpillar)、大毛毛蟲(big caterpillar)、繭(cocoon)、蝴蝶(butterfly);數片小葉子(leaf)及不同顏色磁鐵數個。
二、 教學重點:故事內容以毛毛蟲變蝴蝶為主軸,依此教學生重要字彙egg、small caterpillar、big caterpillar、cocoon、butterfly、leaf等單字。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師用閃示卡帶唸上述圖卡之生字。
2. 老師將圖卡隨意貼於黑板上,問學生:"What is the life circle of butterflies?"老師依學生的回答將蝴蝶的生命週期排成一圓圈形狀。
3. 教師可將此延伸為「計分方式」,將學生分成小組,並以不同顏色的磁鐵表示組別。每從頭走完一圈的組別可得到葉子一片,最後得到最多葉子的組別為優勝。
四、 愛的小語:校園內隨處可見的落葉就是好素材唷!在樹葉背後直接貼上磁鐵或直接以膠膜護貝就OK了!
活動二:數字繞口令
一、 教學準備:毋需準備教具。
二、 教學重點:學會數數字一到八。故事中毛毛蟲每天都分別吃下了一個蘋果、二個西洋梨、三個李子、四顆草莓、五粒橘子……,透過有趣的韻文讓學生熟悉一到八的數字說法。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師帶唸數字一到八。
2. 在黑板寫Number Chant!(如下圖)並引導學生慢慢唸讀。待學生熟稔後,不論是小組競賽或個別挑戰唸Number Chant!,比賽正確度或速度快慢,都非常刺激、有趣。
四、 愛的小語:
1. 這個教學活動的想法來自歌手庾澄慶所唱「快樂頌」前奏的數數部份,筆者將中文歌詞改編成英語,如果能找到這首音樂CD,配合歌曲,教學效果會很好唷!
2. 如果時間允許,教師也可以讓學生來挑戰「多語版」的Number Chant!如先唸中文版,再加入台語版或客家語版等,最後再帶入英文版,也是很不錯的教學活動唷!
活動三:撲克牌遊戲「心臟病」
一、 教學準備:空白A4大小的紙張。
二、 教學重點:毛毛蟲在Sunday破卵而出,接著分別在一週內吃下了各樣的食物,利用學生喜歡的撲克牌遊戲,練習一週七天的說法(Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday)。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師先教唸單字。
2. 發給學生每人兩張空白A4紙,請學生將其畫線分成八等分,總共會有十六個方格。
3. 請學生在方格內寫上Sunday、Monday……等共七個單字,各寫兩遍,總共會有十四張寫有單字的小卡。剩下沒有寫上單字的兩個小方格,即可丟棄。
4. 將方格一一撕下來變成小字卡,有如撲克牌一般。
5. 學生兩人一組(三人、四人一組亦可),一起玩「心臟病」遊戲。
6. 先將字卡的文字面朝下,學生聚在一起先喊起始令:「Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday」之後,學生各翻開一張牌,如果翻開有字相同者,先喊出該單字者可收回對方的牌。如無相同,繼續再喊一次起始令:「Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday」後,再翻開一張牌。
7. 最後擁有最多字卡者獲勝。
活動四:水果洞洞書──食物(food)
一、 教學準備:圖畫紙、剪刀、著色用具。
二、 教學重點:水果的英文單字,例如:apple、pear、plum、watermelon、strawberry、orange、cherry等,因為毛毛蟲在這幾天內吃下了各類的水果,透過洞洞書讓學生熟悉水果說法。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師先帶唸水果單字。
2. 接著引導學生製作「水果洞洞書」,學生可隨意畫上三種自己喜歡的水果(詳細步驟請見下圖說明)。
3. 完成後讓學生互相介紹、欣賞彼此製作的洞洞書。
4. 最後利用水果洞洞書帶學生一起玩「水果賓果遊戲」。老師隨意抽出教過的三種水果名,如果抽中的三種水果名恰與學生所製作的水果洞洞書完全相同者,該名學生即可喊Bingo!
四、 愛的小語:建議老師在帶學生製作小書的過程,要一個口令一個動作,待全體學生都完成後再進入下一個動作,以免有的學生沒有跟上,老師反而要花更多的時間一一解說。
活動五:可愛毛毛蟲
一、 教學準備:毛根(如下圖1)。
二、 教學重點:學習本書重覆出現的句型:“The caterpillar ate through one apple.”、“The caterpillar ate through two pears.”。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 引導學生製作完成小毛毛蟲(詳細步驟請見下圖說明)。
2. 配合「水果洞洞書」,讓學生操弄毛毛蟲通過洞洞書,就像毛毛蟲吃水果的動作,一邊說“The caterpillar ate through one apple.”。
結語
本文分享幾個筆者實際在教室內操作過的教學活動,透過圖片的說明,希望讀者能夠更明白如何製作。也許有老師會質疑「動手做」的教學活動耗費時間,但其實不然,這些活動都是在五至十分鐘內就可以完成的。老師們亦可嘗試把「動手做」的活動安排在下課前十分鐘,不但不會影響寶貴的上課時間,部份沒做完活動的學生也還能在下課空檔完成作品。另外,讓學生有「作品」帶回也很重要,身為教育工作者的我們,除了要讓學生學得有趣外,還要學得有效,讓他們有成就感,相信必定能增強學生學習的動機。筆者深信,無論是學習單、字卡、小書或美勞作品,只要能讓學生有機會再三複習、回味、分享或製作加深印象「作品」的學習活動,都該受到鼓勵。
作者簡介
◎ 台北縣三重市集美國小英語老師
◎ 國立台北師範學院兒童英語教育研究所
◎ 教育部九年一貫課程英語深耕種子老師
◎ 台北縣英語科輔導團團員
............教具製作
──以The Very Hungry Caterpillar為例
◎ 張于玲
楔子
近幾年來,隨著「說故事教學」活動的推薦,艾瑞˙卡爾(Eric Carle)的經典繪本The Very Hungry Caterpillar《好餓好餓的毛毛蟲》已變成台灣英語教學界的「國民教科書」了!因為只要接觸過英語繪本的老師,一定都知曉這本好看又好教的繪本。筆者曾多次參加英語繪本教學研習課程,發現主講者都不約而同地介紹這本書,此外,若你嘗試在網路上鍵入本書書名或作者名做為關鍵字搜尋,那蹦跳出來的一大堆資料必定讓您眼花撩亂,大吃一驚。雖然本書的教學資源已相當豐富,但筆者還是忍不住想要錦上添花,將自己的教學經驗和大家分享,期望有更多愛好繪本的老師,一起來感受使用繪本教學的樂趣,並將繪本的美帶給學生。
本書大意
故事述說著一隻可愛的毛毛蟲,在某一暗夜,頂著月光偷偷地破卵而出,隨即便展開牠豐盛的美食之旅。從週一到週六,牠放縱口慾,嚐盡美味、日日飽餐。結果,真的肚子疼了!還好吃了一片嫩葉,在週日的清晨舒緩了痛楚,之後,牠便漸漸入眠,開始結繭,最後幻化成一隻美麗的花蝴蝶。
書中環繞著「蝴蝶生命週期」(the life circle of butterflies)、「一週七天」(days of the week)、「食物和營養」(food & nutrition)、「計數」(counting)等主題,配合主要句子“On Monday, the caterpillar ate through one apple.”重覆出現,讓學生易學易記。此外,以毛毛蟲為題材的自然生態故事,更是學生好奇與喜愛的主題,也讓本書更適合運用於國小英語教學上。
作者艾瑞‧卡爾介紹
艾瑞‧卡爾(Eric Carle)1929年美國紐約出生,六歲那年隨雙親移居德國,是一位兼具藝術天分與文學才情的兒童文學大師。相信有不少讀者會為他冠上「教育工作者」名號,因為創作超過七十本出版品的他,不少經典作品已翻譯成三十多種語言,發行世界各地,無論是大人或小孩,均能夠從他的圖畫書中得到知識的增長及閱讀的樂趣;而學生的藝術鑑賞能力,也一併能從其圖書插畫中得到涵養與陶冶。艾瑞‧卡爾的作品總會帶來新鮮的賣點和噱頭,如The Very Hungry Caterpillar書籍挖洞設計,給學生手指操弄書的趣味,又或如Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me運用書籍摺頁展開帶給讀者驚喜,加上故事主題常圍繞著可愛動物,圖畫中鑲嵌著簡單的循環字句,使得他的繪本成為校園裡不可或缺的好教材。艾瑞‧卡爾繪畫風格獨特,用色大膽鮮明,所以想要在萬堆書中找出他的作品並不困難。拼貼是他慣用的作畫技巧,至於用來做拼貼的各色圖紙,全都是他隨意大揮彩筆而成的傑作。透過他的巧手層層疊出明亮的圖案,活潑歡欣的閱讀樂趣,從觸及他書本的那一刻起,全然湧現。
主題式教學活動設計
為了使學生更能體會本書內容的趣味,筆者特別根據故事內容及書中主要句型,設計以下幾項延伸教學活動。
活動一:蝴蝶生命週期(the life circle of butterflies)
一、 教學準備:蝴蝶生長階段的各種生命形式閃示圖卡,包括卵(egg)、小毛毛蟲(small caterpillar)、大毛毛蟲(big caterpillar)、繭(cocoon)、蝴蝶(butterfly);數片小葉子(leaf)及不同顏色磁鐵數個。
二、 教學重點:故事內容以毛毛蟲變蝴蝶為主軸,依此教學生重要字彙egg、small caterpillar、big caterpillar、cocoon、butterfly、leaf等單字。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師用閃示卡帶唸上述圖卡之生字。
2. 老師將圖卡隨意貼於黑板上,問學生:"What is the life circle of butterflies?"老師依學生的回答將蝴蝶的生命週期排成一圓圈形狀。
3. 教師可將此延伸為「計分方式」,將學生分成小組,並以不同顏色的磁鐵表示組別。每從頭走完一圈的組別可得到葉子一片,最後得到最多葉子的組別為優勝。
四、 愛的小語:校園內隨處可見的落葉就是好素材唷!在樹葉背後直接貼上磁鐵或直接以膠膜護貝就OK了!
活動二:數字繞口令
一、 教學準備:毋需準備教具。
二、 教學重點:學會數數字一到八。故事中毛毛蟲每天都分別吃下了一個蘋果、二個西洋梨、三個李子、四顆草莓、五粒橘子……,透過有趣的韻文讓學生熟悉一到八的數字說法。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師帶唸數字一到八。
2. 在黑板寫Number Chant!(如下圖)並引導學生慢慢唸讀。待學生熟稔後,不論是小組競賽或個別挑戰唸Number Chant!,比賽正確度或速度快慢,都非常刺激、有趣。
四、 愛的小語:
1. 這個教學活動的想法來自歌手庾澄慶所唱「快樂頌」前奏的數數部份,筆者將中文歌詞改編成英語,如果能找到這首音樂CD,配合歌曲,教學效果會很好唷!
2. 如果時間允許,教師也可以讓學生來挑戰「多語版」的Number Chant!如先唸中文版,再加入台語版或客家語版等,最後再帶入英文版,也是很不錯的教學活動唷!
活動三:撲克牌遊戲「心臟病」
一、 教學準備:空白A4大小的紙張。
二、 教學重點:毛毛蟲在Sunday破卵而出,接著分別在一週內吃下了各樣的食物,利用學生喜歡的撲克牌遊戲,練習一週七天的說法(Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday)。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師先教唸單字。
2. 發給學生每人兩張空白A4紙,請學生將其畫線分成八等分,總共會有十六個方格。
3. 請學生在方格內寫上Sunday、Monday……等共七個單字,各寫兩遍,總共會有十四張寫有單字的小卡。剩下沒有寫上單字的兩個小方格,即可丟棄。
4. 將方格一一撕下來變成小字卡,有如撲克牌一般。
5. 學生兩人一組(三人、四人一組亦可),一起玩「心臟病」遊戲。
6. 先將字卡的文字面朝下,學生聚在一起先喊起始令:「Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday」之後,學生各翻開一張牌,如果翻開有字相同者,先喊出該單字者可收回對方的牌。如無相同,繼續再喊一次起始令:「Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday」後,再翻開一張牌。
7. 最後擁有最多字卡者獲勝。
活動四:水果洞洞書──食物(food)
一、 教學準備:圖畫紙、剪刀、著色用具。
二、 教學重點:水果的英文單字,例如:apple、pear、plum、watermelon、strawberry、orange、cherry等,因為毛毛蟲在這幾天內吃下了各類的水果,透過洞洞書讓學生熟悉水果說法。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 老師先帶唸水果單字。
2. 接著引導學生製作「水果洞洞書」,學生可隨意畫上三種自己喜歡的水果(詳細步驟請見下圖說明)。
3. 完成後讓學生互相介紹、欣賞彼此製作的洞洞書。
4. 最後利用水果洞洞書帶學生一起玩「水果賓果遊戲」。老師隨意抽出教過的三種水果名,如果抽中的三種水果名恰與學生所製作的水果洞洞書完全相同者,該名學生即可喊Bingo!
四、 愛的小語:建議老師在帶學生製作小書的過程,要一個口令一個動作,待全體學生都完成後再進入下一個動作,以免有的學生沒有跟上,老師反而要花更多的時間一一解說。
活動五:可愛毛毛蟲
一、 教學準備:毛根(如下圖1)。
二、 教學重點:學習本書重覆出現的句型:“The caterpillar ate through one apple.”、“The caterpillar ate through two pears.”。
三、 教學步驟:
1. 引導學生製作完成小毛毛蟲(詳細步驟請見下圖說明)。
2. 配合「水果洞洞書」,讓學生操弄毛毛蟲通過洞洞書,就像毛毛蟲吃水果的動作,一邊說“The caterpillar ate through one apple.”。
結語
本文分享幾個筆者實際在教室內操作過的教學活動,透過圖片的說明,希望讀者能夠更明白如何製作。也許有老師會質疑「動手做」的教學活動耗費時間,但其實不然,這些活動都是在五至十分鐘內就可以完成的。老師們亦可嘗試把「動手做」的活動安排在下課前十分鐘,不但不會影響寶貴的上課時間,部份沒做完活動的學生也還能在下課空檔完成作品。另外,讓學生有「作品」帶回也很重要,身為教育工作者的我們,除了要讓學生學得有趣外,還要學得有效,讓他們有成就感,相信必定能增強學生學習的動機。筆者深信,無論是學習單、字卡、小書或美勞作品,只要能讓學生有機會再三複習、回味、分享或製作加深印象「作品」的學習活動,都該受到鼓勵。
作者簡介
◎ 台北縣三重市集美國小英語老師
◎ 國立台北師範學院兒童英語教育研究所
◎ 教育部九年一貫課程英語深耕種子老師
◎ 台北縣英語科輔導團團員
說個精彩的故事!
◎ 張琬琦
楔子
「說故事時間到囉!」上英語課時,小朋友只要一聽到老師要說故事,無不精神奕奕,興致高昂,聽故事時也很容易全神貫注,完全沈浸在故事情節裡。透過故事,孩子不僅獲得娛樂、知識,也能在故事角色的投射作用下更瞭解自我,進而學習如何表達想法、與人溝通、有禮地發問,以及思考問題的解決方法等。而學習語言更是少不了故事,因為透過架構完整的情節、有趣的人物及無限的想像空間,孩子們可輕鬆自然地從中學習另一種語言。但是,老師們要如何持續孩子聽故事的興趣呢?這就要靠老師們「說書」的技巧了!
故事人人會說,巧妙各有不同!
老師想做個優秀的說書人,可不是隨手抽一本書自顧自地「唸」書就行的,首先,要挑選適合孩子程度的故事書。依筆者的教學經驗,一本書的新字彙大約六個單字左右即可,孩子才不會因為太簡單而興趣缺缺,或因聽不懂而分心。決定要說的故事後,老師便可開始構思說故事的方式。常見的說書技巧是依書中的角色配上有趣的聲音,適時加上誇張的表情、動作,同時利用故事書封面、封底及書中鮮豔搶眼的圖片,引導孩子思考故事情節,並邀請孩子們一起預測結局。其實,只要掌握以下十點「說書原則」,您一定可成為一位說書高手!
(一)抓對時機說故事
抓對時機說故事,才能讓您精挑細選的故事發揮最大作用!筆者認為最佳的說書時間為英語課學習單元的起始與結束前。老師教授單元之初,可先說一個與學習內容相關的英語故事,引起學生的學習興趣,例如:在說故事過程融入與單元相關的英語單字、概念、語言情境,或故事中的外國文化與生活樣貌等,並讓學生從故事中瞭解英文單字的意思。最後,在單元結束前,老師將同一個故事再說一次,複習已學過的單字及單元重點,或是請學生自己重述故事,也是不錯的複習方式。
(二)氣氛輕鬆
運用五彩繽紛的「聽書地毯」,或以彩色地墊組合成「故事角落」做為說書場所,甚至隨意讓孩子將椅子挪至講台前,圍成一圈,都可以讓聽書氣氛活絡起來。此外,老師還可將窗簾拉上、放一段輕柔的樂曲當背景音樂,這些小小的改變,就能帶給孩子們聽故事的放鬆感、新奇與幸福感,此時他們是否端正地坐著上課已不重要。可別錯將故事時間變得像道德宣導般嚴肅無趣了!
▲五彩繽紛的聽書地毯(攝自凱斯跨文化雙語幼稚園),讓故事氣氛輕鬆愉快!
(三)開場信號鮮明
老師戴上故事帽、喊口令等小動作、小信號,皆是說故事前的熱身操,能讓孩子們知道「故事時間到了!」筆者最喜歡的開場信號,是和孩子們一起唱「故事歌」,每當筆者說:「Story Time!」孩子們就會拉拉自己的小耳朵,主動唱出故事歌。當唱故事歌變成例行公事,孩子們漸漸被制約了,現在只要看到筆者的「說書道具」,就會自然的將手放在耳朵上,等待提示。他們會用行動告訴您:「我準備好聽故事了!」表現出他們對故事時間的期待。
(四)因材施教
適合學生程度的故事,才是好的學習材料。故事內容新字彙的多寡、句子結構的複雜程度、以及主題是否切合目前學生日常生活經驗等,都是選擇故事書的首要考量。另外,為了吸引筆者四年級班上程度較好學生的注意力,在說故事時筆者會詳細介紹書中的插圖,利用簡單的問題引導他們思考,如:“What do you see in this picture?”、“What color is it?”、“How many boys are there?”或“What are they doing?”等,儘量給予語言刺激,同時也訓練孩子習慣發表自己的想法。
(五)故事宜精
說故事時間太長,會讓孩子們專注力無法持續。所以再精彩的故事秀,也不能超過十五分鐘。故事,只是英語學習的調劑而不是全部,冗長的故事不只讓聽者興趣缺缺,摸不著重點,也讓說書者耗費體力。反之,簡短扼要的故事、重覆的目標句與有畫龍點睛之妙的笑點,反倒能維持故事時間的趣味。
(六)掌握節奏
要掌握說書的精髓,就要先進入故事原作者的思維,再用聽眾能夠了解的語言詮釋出來。說書節奏尤其重要,何時快?何時慢?何時說?何時停?聲音高亮、斷句急促,是製造緊張的氣氛;壓低分貝、輕聲細語小小聲地說,是表現懸疑的情節;講到高潮前忽然停頓,是抓住聽眾注意力的方法。老師應多練習不同語氣的表達技巧,適時加入表情動作,讓聽、說故事更有趣、更有身歷其境之感。
(七)製造音效
書中角色大都不只一人,如果只有老師原本的聲音,學生很容易混淆正在說話的角色,而聽得一頭霧水。說書者可發揮人類天生的「口技」潛能,為書中人物配音。像是狠心的壞皇后與善良的白雪公主、兇惡的虎姑婆與天真單純的小孩、緊張的動物們與自卑的醜小鴨……,多樣的聲音可呈現不同角色的個性,賦予故事新生命。例如:在The Little Red Hen故事中,小紅母雞要求鴨、貓、狗協助小麥播種到製作麵包的過程,老師便可在適當時機模仿動物聲音,讓故事更生動有趣、引人入勝。
(八)變化多端
善用多樣化的說書技巧,可讓故事內容更有趣、更好記。其它的說書方式,請見「各式各樣的說書技巧」此段。
(九)你來我往
說書過程,若只有老師的單向輸入,五分鐘後孩子肯定「見周公」。老師可以適時地發問,引導學生思考與發表看法,並鼓勵學生提出疑問,如此便可讓說書、聽書更生動有趣。
(十)後續活動
老師可利用遊戲、歌謠、製作小書等延伸活動,加深學生對故事內容的印象。例如:將已有英文基礎的學生分組,讓學生挑選故事的重點情節畫成圖卡,隨後請各組在黑板上秀出已完成的圖卡,並依故事情節發展,排出圖卡的順序,並請學生重述故事。對高年級或程度較優的學生,老師可用較複雜的文句引導他們思考,例如:“If I were the little red riding hood, I will tell the big bad wolf …”、“If I were the pear, I will write a letter to the very hungry caterpillar that …”。除了這些後續活動,老師還可上網尋找資源,許多故事相關教學資源如學習單、遊戲、歌謠、劇本等,只需稍做搜尋,實用資源便可輕鬆進入您的教學百寶袋,方便您應用於課程中。
各式各樣的說書技巧
單會一種說故事技巧,可「騙」不了精明的孩子,因孩子專注時間短,所以說書者可要絞盡腦汁做變化。其實只要掌握各種說故事的技巧,運用不同方式詮釋,即使是同一個故事,孩子們仍會懷抱著好奇的心情,期待每回說故事時間的到來。舉凡紙偶、絨布娃娃、大圖片、故事圍裙、大小不一的木塊、紙和筆等物品的使用,都可做為英語故事時間的輔助。例如在第一堂課,您可直接運用書本來說書;第二堂課,便可嘗試使用玩偶,以角色扮演的方式呈現故事;第三堂課,再利用一張大壁報紙與五顏六色的麥克筆,簡易勾勒故事內容。這三堂課所說的故事內容或許相同,但卻因為多變的呈現方式而有不同的趣味!。
以I Can Draw(Janine Scott, McGraw-Hill)這本故事書為例(故事內容如下框),筆者將其應用於四年級學生。第一次上課筆者以書本為主、肢體動作為輔,將此故事與「顏色」主題結合。第二次,利用五顏六色的積木,稍加變換故事中的顏色部份,一邊操作積木,一邊於“butterfly”等關鍵字前做停頓,邀請孩子說出答案,如此一來,不但加深他們的記憶,也強調“on”字的涵義。第三次說書,我帶著一張白色大壁報紙與一盒麥克筆,讓孩子說故事,筆者則同步畫出故事所形容的圖像。另外,老師也可將故事內容延伸,利用常見顏色搭配已學過的單字(如:blue dog, yellow cap, purple book),請學生把它們畫出來。或是,請孩子們分組做角色扮演,最後再票選出最佳作家、最佳演員與最佳創意。以表演方式讓孩子當當說書人,一來可訓練英語的表達能力,二來更增加他們參與說故事的興趣。
I Can Draw -by Janine Scott
I can draw a blue butterfly on a brown branch.
I can draw a red worm on a black rock.
I can draw a brown spider on a white flower.
I can draw a black ant on a pink shell.
I can draw a green grasshopper on a green leaf.
The green grasshopper is hard to see!
(from I Can Draw, Kites)
創意改編故事,您也是作家
除了購買坊間出版的書籍,我們所熟知的傳統民間故事、節慶故事,或是孩童天馬行空的幻想,也都是一個個有趣的故事。生活中處處是題材,老師們也可自行創造有趣的故事,只要整體內容環繞特定學習主題(如:誠實、助人、尊重、幽默……),以及貫通首尾的固定句型、可預見的故事情節(如:鋪陳→事件高潮→解決問題後的快樂結局),再配合上可愛親切的故事主角,一個新故事就出爐了!
筆者將一次夜半三更翻透廚房找食物的親身經驗,詳做新故事的分析與改編。
原始版故事元素:
☆主旨:克服飢餓
☆人物:我
☆場景:廚房
☆問題:好餓!沒食物!
為了將其編寫為一個吸引孩子的故事,筆者特別加入一些擬人化的角色,透過想像力的潤飾後,改寫成以下的故事。
改編版故事元素:
☆主旨:克服飢餓
☆人物:好餓好餓的小女孩、餐具
☆場景:廚房
☆問題:好餓好餓!沒食物!
☆事件:小孩與餐具的對話
☆結局:因驚嚇而解除餓意
分析完後,將這句重覆出現的句子“You can eat me!”嵌入這些基本元素中,筆者的新故事於焉誕生。
Hunger, Go Away! -by Wanchi Chang
I'm so hungry. I need something to eat. So I walk into the kitchen.
So many plates.
So many forks.
So many knives. But NO food!
What can I eat?
Uncle Table says, “You can eat me!"
Aunt Spoon says, “You can eat me!"
Brother Bowl says, “You can eat me!"
Sister Cup says, “You can eat me!"
“If I eat you, what can you all eat?"
Grandma kitchen yells, “We can eat YOU!"
Oops! I'm not hungry anymore.
結語
老師說故事的同時,最忌解釋句型結構與文法,因為快樂氣氛建立很容易,但孩子心中的「內在學習動機」建立可是不容易啊!千萬別讓枯燥的文法教學輕易將它破壞了!老師應利用孩子豐富的想像力順勢引導學習,多鼓勵,少責備,如此一來,孩子才會感覺到英文也是很吸引人的!
筆者從學生的反應觀察到,故事時間不僅讓他們學到英語,延伸活動更能增加個人成就感與自信心,發揮孩子們深藏的創意潛能。故事帶給他們學習動機,影響其學習態度;而良好的學習態度,可讓學習效果更好,成就感漸增,進一步又產生更上一層樓的學習動力。如此良性循環,正是孩子學習英語的利器,因此故事時間的魅力,就要靠聰明的您將其發揮得淋漓盡致了!
參考書目
* 黃啟瑞(2004)。「全語理念在語文教學上的探討」,《國教輔導》,第361期,頁35-38。
* 張芳琪(2001)。「從聲音遊戲中學英文的拼音讀寫」,《英文工廠》,第零期,頁25-28。
* 謝麗雪(1999)。「談如何成為說英文故事的高手?」,《班級經營》,四卷二期,頁11-19。
* 唐睿謙。「用故事帶孩子走進英語世界」,《英文工廠》,第八期,頁14-17。
* Ellis, G. & Brewster, J. (1991). The Storytelling Handbook for Primary Teachers. New York: Penguin Books.
* Mary Slattery & Jane Willis (2001). English for Primary Teachers: A Handbook of Activities & Classroom Language. Oxford University Press.
* Susan Halliwell. (2000). Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. Longman.
* Wendy A. Scott and Lisbeth H. Ytreberg (1990). Teaching English to Children. New York: Longman.
網站資源
* http://www.readinga-z.com/newfiles/preview.html ~提供不同語言程度的各類故事下載
* http://www.kizclub.com/Sbody.html ~提供故事下載,並附相關的學習單及phonics教學字卡。
* http://www.magickeys.com/books/ ~提供依年齡分級的讀本,線上互動軟體也可讓孩子自行決定故事情節發展。
* http://www.kids-space.org/story_04/story.html ~提供世界各國孩童的自創故事,讀完後老師家長也可鼓勵孩子發揮創意、踴躍投稿。
* http://www.storyplace.org/eel/other.asp ~提供線上英語有聲故事、讀後學習單及以及相關的延伸讀本推薦。
作者簡介
◎ 嘉義大學外語系英語教學組學士
◎ 參與國科會「兒童英語說故事工作坊」培訓並於文化局演出
◎ 曾任嘉義縣中林、龍眼、社口國小親子英語說故事讀書會主講人
◎ 曾任嘉義市文化局英語說故事活動講演者
◎ 現為彰化市民生國小實習教師
楔子
「說故事時間到囉!」上英語課時,小朋友只要一聽到老師要說故事,無不精神奕奕,興致高昂,聽故事時也很容易全神貫注,完全沈浸在故事情節裡。透過故事,孩子不僅獲得娛樂、知識,也能在故事角色的投射作用下更瞭解自我,進而學習如何表達想法、與人溝通、有禮地發問,以及思考問題的解決方法等。而學習語言更是少不了故事,因為透過架構完整的情節、有趣的人物及無限的想像空間,孩子們可輕鬆自然地從中學習另一種語言。但是,老師們要如何持續孩子聽故事的興趣呢?這就要靠老師們「說書」的技巧了!
故事人人會說,巧妙各有不同!
老師想做個優秀的說書人,可不是隨手抽一本書自顧自地「唸」書就行的,首先,要挑選適合孩子程度的故事書。依筆者的教學經驗,一本書的新字彙大約六個單字左右即可,孩子才不會因為太簡單而興趣缺缺,或因聽不懂而分心。決定要說的故事後,老師便可開始構思說故事的方式。常見的說書技巧是依書中的角色配上有趣的聲音,適時加上誇張的表情、動作,同時利用故事書封面、封底及書中鮮豔搶眼的圖片,引導孩子思考故事情節,並邀請孩子們一起預測結局。其實,只要掌握以下十點「說書原則」,您一定可成為一位說書高手!
(一)抓對時機說故事
抓對時機說故事,才能讓您精挑細選的故事發揮最大作用!筆者認為最佳的說書時間為英語課學習單元的起始與結束前。老師教授單元之初,可先說一個與學習內容相關的英語故事,引起學生的學習興趣,例如:在說故事過程融入與單元相關的英語單字、概念、語言情境,或故事中的外國文化與生活樣貌等,並讓學生從故事中瞭解英文單字的意思。最後,在單元結束前,老師將同一個故事再說一次,複習已學過的單字及單元重點,或是請學生自己重述故事,也是不錯的複習方式。
(二)氣氛輕鬆
運用五彩繽紛的「聽書地毯」,或以彩色地墊組合成「故事角落」做為說書場所,甚至隨意讓孩子將椅子挪至講台前,圍成一圈,都可以讓聽書氣氛活絡起來。此外,老師還可將窗簾拉上、放一段輕柔的樂曲當背景音樂,這些小小的改變,就能帶給孩子們聽故事的放鬆感、新奇與幸福感,此時他們是否端正地坐著上課已不重要。可別錯將故事時間變得像道德宣導般嚴肅無趣了!
▲五彩繽紛的聽書地毯(攝自凱斯跨文化雙語幼稚園),讓故事氣氛輕鬆愉快!
(三)開場信號鮮明
老師戴上故事帽、喊口令等小動作、小信號,皆是說故事前的熱身操,能讓孩子們知道「故事時間到了!」筆者最喜歡的開場信號,是和孩子們一起唱「故事歌」,每當筆者說:「Story Time!」孩子們就會拉拉自己的小耳朵,主動唱出故事歌。當唱故事歌變成例行公事,孩子們漸漸被制約了,現在只要看到筆者的「說書道具」,就會自然的將手放在耳朵上,等待提示。他們會用行動告訴您:「我準備好聽故事了!」表現出他們對故事時間的期待。
(四)因材施教
適合學生程度的故事,才是好的學習材料。故事內容新字彙的多寡、句子結構的複雜程度、以及主題是否切合目前學生日常生活經驗等,都是選擇故事書的首要考量。另外,為了吸引筆者四年級班上程度較好學生的注意力,在說故事時筆者會詳細介紹書中的插圖,利用簡單的問題引導他們思考,如:“What do you see in this picture?”、“What color is it?”、“How many boys are there?”或“What are they doing?”等,儘量給予語言刺激,同時也訓練孩子習慣發表自己的想法。
(五)故事宜精
說故事時間太長,會讓孩子們專注力無法持續。所以再精彩的故事秀,也不能超過十五分鐘。故事,只是英語學習的調劑而不是全部,冗長的故事不只讓聽者興趣缺缺,摸不著重點,也讓說書者耗費體力。反之,簡短扼要的故事、重覆的目標句與有畫龍點睛之妙的笑點,反倒能維持故事時間的趣味。
(六)掌握節奏
要掌握說書的精髓,就要先進入故事原作者的思維,再用聽眾能夠了解的語言詮釋出來。說書節奏尤其重要,何時快?何時慢?何時說?何時停?聲音高亮、斷句急促,是製造緊張的氣氛;壓低分貝、輕聲細語小小聲地說,是表現懸疑的情節;講到高潮前忽然停頓,是抓住聽眾注意力的方法。老師應多練習不同語氣的表達技巧,適時加入表情動作,讓聽、說故事更有趣、更有身歷其境之感。
(七)製造音效
書中角色大都不只一人,如果只有老師原本的聲音,學生很容易混淆正在說話的角色,而聽得一頭霧水。說書者可發揮人類天生的「口技」潛能,為書中人物配音。像是狠心的壞皇后與善良的白雪公主、兇惡的虎姑婆與天真單純的小孩、緊張的動物們與自卑的醜小鴨……,多樣的聲音可呈現不同角色的個性,賦予故事新生命。例如:在The Little Red Hen故事中,小紅母雞要求鴨、貓、狗協助小麥播種到製作麵包的過程,老師便可在適當時機模仿動物聲音,讓故事更生動有趣、引人入勝。
(八)變化多端
善用多樣化的說書技巧,可讓故事內容更有趣、更好記。其它的說書方式,請見「各式各樣的說書技巧」此段。
(九)你來我往
說書過程,若只有老師的單向輸入,五分鐘後孩子肯定「見周公」。老師可以適時地發問,引導學生思考與發表看法,並鼓勵學生提出疑問,如此便可讓說書、聽書更生動有趣。
(十)後續活動
老師可利用遊戲、歌謠、製作小書等延伸活動,加深學生對故事內容的印象。例如:將已有英文基礎的學生分組,讓學生挑選故事的重點情節畫成圖卡,隨後請各組在黑板上秀出已完成的圖卡,並依故事情節發展,排出圖卡的順序,並請學生重述故事。對高年級或程度較優的學生,老師可用較複雜的文句引導他們思考,例如:“If I were the little red riding hood, I will tell the big bad wolf …”、“If I were the pear, I will write a letter to the very hungry caterpillar that …”。除了這些後續活動,老師還可上網尋找資源,許多故事相關教學資源如學習單、遊戲、歌謠、劇本等,只需稍做搜尋,實用資源便可輕鬆進入您的教學百寶袋,方便您應用於課程中。
各式各樣的說書技巧
單會一種說故事技巧,可「騙」不了精明的孩子,因孩子專注時間短,所以說書者可要絞盡腦汁做變化。其實只要掌握各種說故事的技巧,運用不同方式詮釋,即使是同一個故事,孩子們仍會懷抱著好奇的心情,期待每回說故事時間的到來。舉凡紙偶、絨布娃娃、大圖片、故事圍裙、大小不一的木塊、紙和筆等物品的使用,都可做為英語故事時間的輔助。例如在第一堂課,您可直接運用書本來說書;第二堂課,便可嘗試使用玩偶,以角色扮演的方式呈現故事;第三堂課,再利用一張大壁報紙與五顏六色的麥克筆,簡易勾勒故事內容。這三堂課所說的故事內容或許相同,但卻因為多變的呈現方式而有不同的趣味!。
以I Can Draw(Janine Scott, McGraw-Hill)這本故事書為例(故事內容如下框),筆者將其應用於四年級學生。第一次上課筆者以書本為主、肢體動作為輔,將此故事與「顏色」主題結合。第二次,利用五顏六色的積木,稍加變換故事中的顏色部份,一邊操作積木,一邊於“butterfly”等關鍵字前做停頓,邀請孩子說出答案,如此一來,不但加深他們的記憶,也強調“on”字的涵義。第三次說書,我帶著一張白色大壁報紙與一盒麥克筆,讓孩子說故事,筆者則同步畫出故事所形容的圖像。另外,老師也可將故事內容延伸,利用常見顏色搭配已學過的單字(如:blue dog, yellow cap, purple book),請學生把它們畫出來。或是,請孩子們分組做角色扮演,最後再票選出最佳作家、最佳演員與最佳創意。以表演方式讓孩子當當說書人,一來可訓練英語的表達能力,二來更增加他們參與說故事的興趣。
I Can Draw -by Janine Scott
I can draw a blue butterfly on a brown branch.
I can draw a red worm on a black rock.
I can draw a brown spider on a white flower.
I can draw a black ant on a pink shell.
I can draw a green grasshopper on a green leaf.
The green grasshopper is hard to see!
(from I Can Draw, Kites)
創意改編故事,您也是作家
除了購買坊間出版的書籍,我們所熟知的傳統民間故事、節慶故事,或是孩童天馬行空的幻想,也都是一個個有趣的故事。生活中處處是題材,老師們也可自行創造有趣的故事,只要整體內容環繞特定學習主題(如:誠實、助人、尊重、幽默……),以及貫通首尾的固定句型、可預見的故事情節(如:鋪陳→事件高潮→解決問題後的快樂結局),再配合上可愛親切的故事主角,一個新故事就出爐了!
筆者將一次夜半三更翻透廚房找食物的親身經驗,詳做新故事的分析與改編。
原始版故事元素:
☆主旨:克服飢餓
☆人物:我
☆場景:廚房
☆問題:好餓!沒食物!
為了將其編寫為一個吸引孩子的故事,筆者特別加入一些擬人化的角色,透過想像力的潤飾後,改寫成以下的故事。
改編版故事元素:
☆主旨:克服飢餓
☆人物:好餓好餓的小女孩、餐具
☆場景:廚房
☆問題:好餓好餓!沒食物!
☆事件:小孩與餐具的對話
☆結局:因驚嚇而解除餓意
分析完後,將這句重覆出現的句子“You can eat me!”嵌入這些基本元素中,筆者的新故事於焉誕生。
Hunger, Go Away! -by Wanchi Chang
I'm so hungry. I need something to eat. So I walk into the kitchen.
So many plates.
So many forks.
So many knives. But NO food!
What can I eat?
Uncle Table says, “You can eat me!"
Aunt Spoon says, “You can eat me!"
Brother Bowl says, “You can eat me!"
Sister Cup says, “You can eat me!"
“If I eat you, what can you all eat?"
Grandma kitchen yells, “We can eat YOU!"
Oops! I'm not hungry anymore.
結語
老師說故事的同時,最忌解釋句型結構與文法,因為快樂氣氛建立很容易,但孩子心中的「內在學習動機」建立可是不容易啊!千萬別讓枯燥的文法教學輕易將它破壞了!老師應利用孩子豐富的想像力順勢引導學習,多鼓勵,少責備,如此一來,孩子才會感覺到英文也是很吸引人的!
筆者從學生的反應觀察到,故事時間不僅讓他們學到英語,延伸活動更能增加個人成就感與自信心,發揮孩子們深藏的創意潛能。故事帶給他們學習動機,影響其學習態度;而良好的學習態度,可讓學習效果更好,成就感漸增,進一步又產生更上一層樓的學習動力。如此良性循環,正是孩子學習英語的利器,因此故事時間的魅力,就要靠聰明的您將其發揮得淋漓盡致了!
參考書目
* 黃啟瑞(2004)。「全語理念在語文教學上的探討」,《國教輔導》,第361期,頁35-38。
* 張芳琪(2001)。「從聲音遊戲中學英文的拼音讀寫」,《英文工廠》,第零期,頁25-28。
* 謝麗雪(1999)。「談如何成為說英文故事的高手?」,《班級經營》,四卷二期,頁11-19。
* 唐睿謙。「用故事帶孩子走進英語世界」,《英文工廠》,第八期,頁14-17。
* Ellis, G. & Brewster, J. (1991). The Storytelling Handbook for Primary Teachers. New York: Penguin Books.
* Mary Slattery & Jane Willis (2001). English for Primary Teachers: A Handbook of Activities & Classroom Language. Oxford University Press.
* Susan Halliwell. (2000). Teaching English in the Primary Classroom. Longman.
* Wendy A. Scott and Lisbeth H. Ytreberg (1990). Teaching English to Children. New York: Longman.
網站資源
* http://www.readinga-z.com/newfiles/preview.html ~提供不同語言程度的各類故事下載
* http://www.kizclub.com/Sbody.html ~提供故事下載,並附相關的學習單及phonics教學字卡。
* http://www.magickeys.com/books/ ~提供依年齡分級的讀本,線上互動軟體也可讓孩子自行決定故事情節發展。
* http://www.kids-space.org/story_04/story.html ~提供世界各國孩童的自創故事,讀完後老師家長也可鼓勵孩子發揮創意、踴躍投稿。
* http://www.storyplace.org/eel/other.asp ~提供線上英語有聲故事、讀後學習單及以及相關的延伸讀本推薦。
作者簡介
◎ 嘉義大學外語系英語教學組學士
◎ 參與國科會「兒童英語說故事工作坊」培訓並於文化局演出
◎ 曾任嘉義縣中林、龍眼、社口國小親子英語說故事讀書會主講人
◎ 曾任嘉義市文化局英語說故事活動講演者
◎ 現為彰化市民生國小實習教師
E-mail融入英語教學──網路小天使英文E-mail活動
◎ 黃斌峰
隨著網路科技普及化,E-mail(電子郵件)已然成為現代人溝通往來的重要媒介之一,舉凡生意往來、商業廣告、公文傳遞或一般書信等,都常透過E-mail來傳遞,因此E-mail的收發對現代人來說可算是一種必備的基本技能,尤其對於現今常上網的青少年學子而言,E-mail已是與同儕間不可或缺的聯絡工具。我們都知道,教學的最高境界之一,就是讓教學內容符合生活上的實用性,因此,若能將E-mail融入英語教學,不但能投青少年學子所好,有效提高他們的學習興趣與意願,也能落實「英語教學生活化」的理念。
E-mail功能特色與英語教學應用
今日E-mail的應用幾乎已取代了傳統書信郵寄方式,它之所以大受歡迎,是因為有著以下特色:
一、E-mail的傳送與接收,速度極為迅速且便捷,能突破使用者距離的限制。即使寄件者遠在地球的彼端,透過網際網路的連結,都能在幾分鐘甚至幾秒鐘內將訊息傳送給地球另一端的收件者,如收件者立即收信,便能保有極高的時效性。
二、E-mail中「附加檔案」與「超連結」的功能,可讓寄件者在信件中夾帶任何一種檔案寄送出去。也就是說,不論何種形式的電子檔案,舉凡圖片、影音檔、文字附件、網址等資料內容,寄件者都可轉化成附加檔案或超連結進行傳輸。此功能讓E-mail成為一種多元化的溝通工具,大大提高其實用性。
E-mail優勢功能的應用,其實可成為輔助英語教學的一大利器,在這凡事講求E化的時代,我們自然可將之運用於改善教學效能與效率上。舉例來說,如果臨時要給學生某項英文作業,老師便可利用E-mail「多方發信」的功能,將作業題目在同一時間內傳送至每位學生的信箱,並且只要在發信前設定好「回條」的功能,便能準確知道學生是否已收到信。而學生完成作業或老師改完作業後,也可用同樣方法回信。師生建立這樣的E-mail使用習慣後,許多教學任務的傳達往來就會變得很輕鬆、有效率,甚至還可節省許多作業用紙!
教學實例:網路小天使英文E-mail活動
E-mail除了可做為提昇教學效率的好工具,其融入教學內容的方法也有很多。筆者在思索E-mail的教學應用時,得到一個靈感──「網路小天使(E-angel)英文E-mail活動」,此構想是來自於一種團康活動中常玩的遊戲:「小天使與小主人」。這個遊戲的立意是:每個人一生當中都有許多小天使在保護、鼓勵自己,學生在此遊戲中將扮演小天使保護別人,同時也扮演小主人受別人保護,彼此間隨時傳遞關心、激勵與情感交流。
如同其它團康遊戲一樣,此遊戲玩法也有許多「變化形」。而在學校班級進行時最常見的遊戲方法是:先請每位學生一一抽籤,抽中某位同學便要擔任那位同學(即小主人)的「小天使」。小天使要暗中保護小主人,並常傳遞給小主人留言紙條、卡片(也可貼於佈告欄)或小禮物,時時噓寒問暖、表達關心。小天使不能向小主人洩漏身份,必須等到活動結束時的身份揭曉時間才能公開,屆時老師將請每位小主人上臺告訴大家自己所猜測的小天使是誰,然後再請真正的小天使與小主人相認。活動過程中,老師可在旁管控全程並適時提供協助。此活動的過程充滿著驚喜、溫馨與趣味,並能大大增進團體間的情感以及人際的互動。
將這個遊戲應用於英語教學時,老師便可請學生將小天使原本傳達訊息的工具(紙條卡片等)轉變成以「英文」寫作的E-mail,而原本需請他人協助暗中傳遞或張貼留言的工作,就交給電子郵件信箱去完成。因此,學生不但能一邊享受活動的溫馨與趣味,同時也學到英文的E-mail寫作。
「網路小天使英文E-mail活動」教學計劃
一、適用對象:國三至高一的學生
二、教學目的:
1. 使學生學會英文E-mail的基本寫作方法。
2. 使學生多練習之前學過的四大時態「現在式、過去式、未來式、現在完成式」用法。
三、活動時間:
三至四週。由於這個活動耗費學生教師雙方的時間較久,筆者建議活動可於寒暑假實施,而學生E-mail往來的信件,則可列印出來做為另類的寒暑假作業。
四、活動前提:
活動開始前,老師必須先確認:
1. 是否班上每位學生都有電腦及E-mail信箱,並具備收發E-mail、插入附加檔案等基本能力?
2. 每位學生是否已具備英文E-mail寫作的基本知識?
◎上述兩項的解決方法:
關於第一點,若班上有的學生家中沒有電腦,老師可安排他們到其他同學家使用電腦,或協助申請借用學校的電腦教室。收發信件能力方面,老師可事先與該班的電腦科教師配合,請電腦老師教學生申請E-mail信箱以及如何有技巧隱藏寄件者名稱的方法,以避免寄信時洩漏個人資料,同時並教會學生使用E- mail收發信、夾檔等基本技能。當然,若英文老師本身具備足夠的電腦應用與解說能力,便可親自進行這方面的教學。
至於第二點「英文E-mail寫作的基本知識」,英文教師平時可利用課堂上或課餘時間介紹E-mail的應用類型,與英文Email的寫作技巧,並舉E-mail實例進行解說。以下茲舉教學實例,提供讀者參考:
例一:回覆邀請(正式版)
Dear Mr. John Smith:
I have already received your invitation card. Thank you so much for inviting me to this wonderful party. I'll bring my wife with me and be there on time. I'll see you then.
Best regards,
Mike Lee
P.S. The attached file is the new project for next season. Please read it through, and then we'll talk. Thanks.
例二:回覆邀請(非正式版)
Hi, john:
Got Ur invitation. Thanks! Will bring my wife and B there on time. C U there. Bye!
Mike
教師在講解這兩封E-mail的時候,可以做幾個基本觀念的介紹:
1. 如同中文信件,英文E-mail也需具備基本格式,包括:稱謂、祝福話語、信末署名等,必要時加上備註(P.S.)。
2. E-mail用字大多簡單,句子精簡,而且常用縮寫。
3. E-mail和一般書信一樣,有正式與非正式之分。通常依對象關係的不同,而會有語氣、用字及客套話的差異。例如第一封用字正式且嚴謹,可以想見是由事業夥伴所書寫的正式商業E-mail,除了客氣答謝邀請,也附加了下一季的計劃書。而第二封信則用字相當口語,顯然是John所熟識的朋友所寫,已省略客套話,直接告訴他會前往參加,屬非正式的E-mail。
4. 英文E-mail的寫作,也應要求句讀之正確,在標點符號與分段上應求恰當,句意敘述也要清楚。
5. 英文E-mail內容完成後,應檢查所有內容再寄出。檢查內容包括信件主旨、收件人郵件正確位址、信函內文標點符號與文意,以及是否還有訊息遺漏之處。
五、活動流程:
1. 老師說明遊戲規則:
(1) 每位學生以抽籤方式,抽出自己將要負責照顧的小主人姓名,抽完必須對名字保密,不能洩漏給任何同學。
(2) 小天使每週至少要寫三封英文E-mail給小主人,小主人收到小天使的來信後也要以英文回信。換言之,每一輪的E- mail聯絡,每個人要寄出兩封信、收到兩封信。寄信:一封是回覆自己小天使的信,一封是寫給自己小主人的信。收信:一封是小主人回給自己的信,一封是自己的小天使的來信。
(3) 小主人要在小天使的來信文末,自己加上一行藍字:「I guess my E-angel is (人名) 」。當然,有可能小主人每次的猜測都是不同的。
(4) 每封英文E-mail都必須用到現在式、過去式、未來式與現在完成式四大時態,並將時態用紅色字體標示出來。
(5) 信件內容主題不限,可以是學業方面的關心、欣賞與稱讚、生日或節慶的祝賀、日常生活近況問候等皆可。
(6) E-mail信件內容可省略客套用語,但不可使用類似前述非正式信函中不合語法的簡寫或句子(例如將your 寫成Ur等)。
(7) 以英文寫E-mail時,如有話語不知如何用英文表達時,可以先寫E-mail問老師,甚至如果對所寫內容沒把握,可先將整封信E-mail給老師審閱。
(8) 上述四封信都需存檔,並列印出來裝訂成冊,加裝封面,冊名為「我的E-mail日誌(My E-mail Journal)」,做為寒暑假的英文作業。日誌內容分類為四部份:「From My E-angel」、「To My E-angel」、「From the One I Took Care of」以及「To the One I Took Care of」。
(9) 作業評分方式:
項目 計分比 得分
內容句法是否正確,四大時態是否恰當使用 25%
內容用字,分段是否恰當 20%
內容是否豐富 20%
美工設計與裝訂 15%
信件是否收集完整 10%
信件格式是否恰當 10%
評語:
總分
(10) 活動結束或開學後,請學生輪流上臺,每位有三次機會用英語問同學:「I guess my E-angel is ...Am I right?」不管三次機會中猜對或猜錯,小天使最後還是要與小主人相認。為延續活動效果,老師也可事先請每位學生準備一份簡單的小禮物,在相認時送給自己的小天使。
2. 活動前先於課堂上複習英文文法四大時態「現在式、過去式、未來式、現在完成式」,並讓學生多做各時態的造句練習。
3. 告知活動開始與結束的時間,並確認學生都已了解遊戲規則。
4. 教師評鑑學生的日誌後,如時間允許,可挑出優異作品於課堂上展示,或是舉辦一個「成果展覽會」,將全班作品置於教室一處,供學生們翻閱欣賞。甚至將此活動延伸出去,與其它班級或外校師生合辦,並邀集其它英語教師們一同指導。
學生作品
以下是筆者在高一班實施此活動時,一位Mary同學與她的小天使Stacy往來的四封英文E-mail內容,提供老師們參考。
第一封信:Mary的小天使來信
Dear Mary:
I know this Friday is your birthday, so I gave you a present. Have you got it already? Do you like it? I'll be waiting for your E-mail!
Your E-angel
I guess my E-angel is Tom, or John.
第二封信:Mary回信給小天使
My dear E-angel:
Yes, I've got your gift! I'm so happy! The teddy bear is so lovely. And you bet I like it! By the way, I got 98 on our English test! So I think I'll be happy for the rest of the week!
Mary
第三封信:Mary寫信給她的小主人Stacy
Dear Stacy:
How have you been doing? I notice that you didn't do well on the math test. So I'm giving you my math notes in the attached file. I certainly hope they'll help. Tell me if you need any other help with your math.
Your E-angel
P.S. I also gave you some chocolate. Let me know if you have received it.
第四封信:Mary的小主人Stacy回信
My dear E-angel:
Thank you so much for the math notes and chocolate. I got both of them today. I was surprised, but I was happy, too. In fact, I've already started to study your notes. I think they'll help to improve my math.
Stacy
結語
目前教改強調要給學生「帶著走」的能力,這個口號對我們英語教師的啟示,應該就是重視英語教學和實際生活相結合的必要性,而E-mail這個多功能的現代通訊媒介,有著快速便利、可附加各種資料的功能,是英語老師們可以提昇教學效率的工具。英文E-mail教學也有其必要,因為其寫作技巧是學生未來邁入全球化職場時,可能需要具備的能力。老師們在正課教學之餘,不妨嘗試本文所提供的教學方案,或許會有意想不到的效果喔!
延伸閱讀
◎ Lindsell-Roberts, Sheryl. (2004). Strategic Business Letters and E-mail: Hundreds of Model Letters. Houghton Mifflin.
◎ Irena Köstenbauer. (2004). "An email project". English Teaching Professional. Issue 34. September 2004. pp. 23-24.
隨著網路科技普及化,E-mail(電子郵件)已然成為現代人溝通往來的重要媒介之一,舉凡生意往來、商業廣告、公文傳遞或一般書信等,都常透過E-mail來傳遞,因此E-mail的收發對現代人來說可算是一種必備的基本技能,尤其對於現今常上網的青少年學子而言,E-mail已是與同儕間不可或缺的聯絡工具。我們都知道,教學的最高境界之一,就是讓教學內容符合生活上的實用性,因此,若能將E-mail融入英語教學,不但能投青少年學子所好,有效提高他們的學習興趣與意願,也能落實「英語教學生活化」的理念。
E-mail功能特色與英語教學應用
今日E-mail的應用幾乎已取代了傳統書信郵寄方式,它之所以大受歡迎,是因為有著以下特色:
一、E-mail的傳送與接收,速度極為迅速且便捷,能突破使用者距離的限制。即使寄件者遠在地球的彼端,透過網際網路的連結,都能在幾分鐘甚至幾秒鐘內將訊息傳送給地球另一端的收件者,如收件者立即收信,便能保有極高的時效性。
二、E-mail中「附加檔案」與「超連結」的功能,可讓寄件者在信件中夾帶任何一種檔案寄送出去。也就是說,不論何種形式的電子檔案,舉凡圖片、影音檔、文字附件、網址等資料內容,寄件者都可轉化成附加檔案或超連結進行傳輸。此功能讓E-mail成為一種多元化的溝通工具,大大提高其實用性。
E-mail優勢功能的應用,其實可成為輔助英語教學的一大利器,在這凡事講求E化的時代,我們自然可將之運用於改善教學效能與效率上。舉例來說,如果臨時要給學生某項英文作業,老師便可利用E-mail「多方發信」的功能,將作業題目在同一時間內傳送至每位學生的信箱,並且只要在發信前設定好「回條」的功能,便能準確知道學生是否已收到信。而學生完成作業或老師改完作業後,也可用同樣方法回信。師生建立這樣的E-mail使用習慣後,許多教學任務的傳達往來就會變得很輕鬆、有效率,甚至還可節省許多作業用紙!
教學實例:網路小天使英文E-mail活動
E-mail除了可做為提昇教學效率的好工具,其融入教學內容的方法也有很多。筆者在思索E-mail的教學應用時,得到一個靈感──「網路小天使(E-angel)英文E-mail活動」,此構想是來自於一種團康活動中常玩的遊戲:「小天使與小主人」。這個遊戲的立意是:每個人一生當中都有許多小天使在保護、鼓勵自己,學生在此遊戲中將扮演小天使保護別人,同時也扮演小主人受別人保護,彼此間隨時傳遞關心、激勵與情感交流。
如同其它團康遊戲一樣,此遊戲玩法也有許多「變化形」。而在學校班級進行時最常見的遊戲方法是:先請每位學生一一抽籤,抽中某位同學便要擔任那位同學(即小主人)的「小天使」。小天使要暗中保護小主人,並常傳遞給小主人留言紙條、卡片(也可貼於佈告欄)或小禮物,時時噓寒問暖、表達關心。小天使不能向小主人洩漏身份,必須等到活動結束時的身份揭曉時間才能公開,屆時老師將請每位小主人上臺告訴大家自己所猜測的小天使是誰,然後再請真正的小天使與小主人相認。活動過程中,老師可在旁管控全程並適時提供協助。此活動的過程充滿著驚喜、溫馨與趣味,並能大大增進團體間的情感以及人際的互動。
將這個遊戲應用於英語教學時,老師便可請學生將小天使原本傳達訊息的工具(紙條卡片等)轉變成以「英文」寫作的E-mail,而原本需請他人協助暗中傳遞或張貼留言的工作,就交給電子郵件信箱去完成。因此,學生不但能一邊享受活動的溫馨與趣味,同時也學到英文的E-mail寫作。
「網路小天使英文E-mail活動」教學計劃
一、適用對象:國三至高一的學生
二、教學目的:
1. 使學生學會英文E-mail的基本寫作方法。
2. 使學生多練習之前學過的四大時態「現在式、過去式、未來式、現在完成式」用法。
三、活動時間:
三至四週。由於這個活動耗費學生教師雙方的時間較久,筆者建議活動可於寒暑假實施,而學生E-mail往來的信件,則可列印出來做為另類的寒暑假作業。
四、活動前提:
活動開始前,老師必須先確認:
1. 是否班上每位學生都有電腦及E-mail信箱,並具備收發E-mail、插入附加檔案等基本能力?
2. 每位學生是否已具備英文E-mail寫作的基本知識?
◎上述兩項的解決方法:
關於第一點,若班上有的學生家中沒有電腦,老師可安排他們到其他同學家使用電腦,或協助申請借用學校的電腦教室。收發信件能力方面,老師可事先與該班的電腦科教師配合,請電腦老師教學生申請E-mail信箱以及如何有技巧隱藏寄件者名稱的方法,以避免寄信時洩漏個人資料,同時並教會學生使用E- mail收發信、夾檔等基本技能。當然,若英文老師本身具備足夠的電腦應用與解說能力,便可親自進行這方面的教學。
至於第二點「英文E-mail寫作的基本知識」,英文教師平時可利用課堂上或課餘時間介紹E-mail的應用類型,與英文Email的寫作技巧,並舉E-mail實例進行解說。以下茲舉教學實例,提供讀者參考:
例一:回覆邀請(正式版)
Dear Mr. John Smith:
I have already received your invitation card. Thank you so much for inviting me to this wonderful party. I'll bring my wife with me and be there on time. I'll see you then.
Best regards,
Mike Lee
P.S. The attached file is the new project for next season. Please read it through, and then we'll talk. Thanks.
例二:回覆邀請(非正式版)
Hi, john:
Got Ur invitation. Thanks! Will bring my wife and B there on time. C U there. Bye!
Mike
教師在講解這兩封E-mail的時候,可以做幾個基本觀念的介紹:
1. 如同中文信件,英文E-mail也需具備基本格式,包括:稱謂、祝福話語、信末署名等,必要時加上備註(P.S.)。
2. E-mail用字大多簡單,句子精簡,而且常用縮寫。
3. E-mail和一般書信一樣,有正式與非正式之分。通常依對象關係的不同,而會有語氣、用字及客套話的差異。例如第一封用字正式且嚴謹,可以想見是由事業夥伴所書寫的正式商業E-mail,除了客氣答謝邀請,也附加了下一季的計劃書。而第二封信則用字相當口語,顯然是John所熟識的朋友所寫,已省略客套話,直接告訴他會前往參加,屬非正式的E-mail。
4. 英文E-mail的寫作,也應要求句讀之正確,在標點符號與分段上應求恰當,句意敘述也要清楚。
5. 英文E-mail內容完成後,應檢查所有內容再寄出。檢查內容包括信件主旨、收件人郵件正確位址、信函內文標點符號與文意,以及是否還有訊息遺漏之處。
五、活動流程:
1. 老師說明遊戲規則:
(1) 每位學生以抽籤方式,抽出自己將要負責照顧的小主人姓名,抽完必須對名字保密,不能洩漏給任何同學。
(2) 小天使每週至少要寫三封英文E-mail給小主人,小主人收到小天使的來信後也要以英文回信。換言之,每一輪的E- mail聯絡,每個人要寄出兩封信、收到兩封信。寄信:一封是回覆自己小天使的信,一封是寫給自己小主人的信。收信:一封是小主人回給自己的信,一封是自己的小天使的來信。
(3) 小主人要在小天使的來信文末,自己加上一行藍字:「I guess my E-angel is (人名) 」。當然,有可能小主人每次的猜測都是不同的。
(4) 每封英文E-mail都必須用到現在式、過去式、未來式與現在完成式四大時態,並將時態用紅色字體標示出來。
(5) 信件內容主題不限,可以是學業方面的關心、欣賞與稱讚、生日或節慶的祝賀、日常生活近況問候等皆可。
(6) E-mail信件內容可省略客套用語,但不可使用類似前述非正式信函中不合語法的簡寫或句子(例如將your 寫成Ur等)。
(7) 以英文寫E-mail時,如有話語不知如何用英文表達時,可以先寫E-mail問老師,甚至如果對所寫內容沒把握,可先將整封信E-mail給老師審閱。
(8) 上述四封信都需存檔,並列印出來裝訂成冊,加裝封面,冊名為「我的E-mail日誌(My E-mail Journal)」,做為寒暑假的英文作業。日誌內容分類為四部份:「From My E-angel」、「To My E-angel」、「From the One I Took Care of」以及「To the One I Took Care of」。
(9) 作業評分方式:
項目 計分比 得分
內容句法是否正確,四大時態是否恰當使用 25%
內容用字,分段是否恰當 20%
內容是否豐富 20%
美工設計與裝訂 15%
信件是否收集完整 10%
信件格式是否恰當 10%
評語:
總分
(10) 活動結束或開學後,請學生輪流上臺,每位有三次機會用英語問同學:「I guess my E-angel is ...Am I right?」不管三次機會中猜對或猜錯,小天使最後還是要與小主人相認。為延續活動效果,老師也可事先請每位學生準備一份簡單的小禮物,在相認時送給自己的小天使。
2. 活動前先於課堂上複習英文文法四大時態「現在式、過去式、未來式、現在完成式」,並讓學生多做各時態的造句練習。
3. 告知活動開始與結束的時間,並確認學生都已了解遊戲規則。
4. 教師評鑑學生的日誌後,如時間允許,可挑出優異作品於課堂上展示,或是舉辦一個「成果展覽會」,將全班作品置於教室一處,供學生們翻閱欣賞。甚至將此活動延伸出去,與其它班級或外校師生合辦,並邀集其它英語教師們一同指導。
學生作品
以下是筆者在高一班實施此活動時,一位Mary同學與她的小天使Stacy往來的四封英文E-mail內容,提供老師們參考。
第一封信:Mary的小天使來信
Dear Mary:
I know this Friday is your birthday, so I gave you a present. Have you got it already? Do you like it? I'll be waiting for your E-mail!
Your E-angel
I guess my E-angel is Tom, or John.
第二封信:Mary回信給小天使
My dear E-angel:
Yes, I've got your gift! I'm so happy! The teddy bear is so lovely. And you bet I like it! By the way, I got 98 on our English test! So I think I'll be happy for the rest of the week!
Mary
第三封信:Mary寫信給她的小主人Stacy
Dear Stacy:
How have you been doing? I notice that you didn't do well on the math test. So I'm giving you my math notes in the attached file. I certainly hope they'll help. Tell me if you need any other help with your math.
Your E-angel
P.S. I also gave you some chocolate. Let me know if you have received it.
第四封信:Mary的小主人Stacy回信
My dear E-angel:
Thank you so much for the math notes and chocolate. I got both of them today. I was surprised, but I was happy, too. In fact, I've already started to study your notes. I think they'll help to improve my math.
Stacy
結語
目前教改強調要給學生「帶著走」的能力,這個口號對我們英語教師的啟示,應該就是重視英語教學和實際生活相結合的必要性,而E-mail這個多功能的現代通訊媒介,有著快速便利、可附加各種資料的功能,是英語老師們可以提昇教學效率的工具。英文E-mail教學也有其必要,因為其寫作技巧是學生未來邁入全球化職場時,可能需要具備的能力。老師們在正課教學之餘,不妨嘗試本文所提供的教學方案,或許會有意想不到的效果喔!
延伸閱讀
◎ Lindsell-Roberts, Sheryl. (2004). Strategic Business Letters and E-mail: Hundreds of Model Letters. Houghton Mifflin.
◎ Irena Köstenbauer. (2004). "An email project". English Teaching Professional. Issue 34. September 2004. pp. 23-24.
「教室圖書館」──打造中學生的英文閱讀園地
◎ 許炳煌
提昇語言能力 從廣泛閱讀開始
「廣泛閱讀」(extensive reading,或簡稱「泛讀」)有助於語言能力成長,近年來為國內外學者大為提倡,並有許多研究結果可茲證實[1]。語言學習者藉由「廣泛閱讀」──大量的閱讀輸入(input-rich),能提升閱讀能力並啟發學習慾望,同時練習閱讀課中所學的閱讀技巧、體驗日常生活的真實閱讀(authentic reading),因此廣泛閱讀被視為增進閱讀能力以及世界知識不可或缺的方法,許多亞洲國家並已將其納入以英語為第二語言或外語的課程內容中[2]。
知名學者Smith強調越早培養閱讀習慣有助於提升第二語言或外語能力。而且,閱讀習慣的建立並不是一蹴可幾,必須經常性的閱讀練習,藉此,字彙量會逐漸增加,閱讀理解能力也會提升,進而對英語學習感興趣。因此,「廣泛閱讀」對於中學生的英語學習有相當的重要性與幫助。但是,老師鼓勵學生進行泛讀時,學生不願主動到圖書館借閱英文讀本怎麼辦?其實,老師也可將讀本帶到教室,可行的方法之一,就是在教室內成立一個小型的圖書館。相信大部份老師不會反對這樣的建議,可是真正要著手成立教室圖書館,對平時教課忙碌的老師而言的確是個挑戰。以下筆者根據自身經驗,與老師們分享成立教師圖書館的步驟與方法,並提供選擇讀本的技巧和建議,希藉成立教室圖書館,為學生開啟泛讀之窗。
如何成立教室圖書館
綜合學者的建議(Hedge, 1985; Hill, 1993; Nuttall, 1996; Pilgreen, 2000),老師們可採行以下七個簡單步驟,著手設置教室圖書館:
第一步:查閱現有出版社的紙本目錄或網站上的目錄(請參見文末附錄),獲得各類讀本資訊。通常各家出版社目錄皆有詳列讀本書名、封面、範例頁與內容簡介,老師可從目錄中略知讀本概貌。
第二步:思考學生會因什麼樣的喜好來選書閱讀,列出一份預定購置的讀本清單,並從中挑出一些讀本先讓學生試閱,以便了解所選讀本是否符合他們的喜好。若學生的反應是正面的,則可放心地開始購置清單上的讀本;若為負面反應,則須再謹慎檢討讀本清單,重新挑選。老師也可找幾位學生當面詢問他們的意見或建議。
第三步:設法從學校週遭環境尋求捐贈讀本的對象,以增加教室圖書館的讀本數量(詳見下文方法舉例)。
第四步:學生開始進行讀本閱讀之前,先向學生介紹教室圖書館的維護與運作概念,與學生一起訂定教室圖書館的借閱規則,並鼓勵或邀請學生自願擔任圖書館員。
第五步:訓練學生運用閱讀技巧的能力,使學生的英文閱讀能真正進入狀況。例如,遇到生字時如何試從上下文了解字義;叮嚀學生非必要儘量不用英漢字典,以免失去廣泛閱讀的原意和目的。如必須使用字典,則可鼓勵學生查閱英英字典,以提升英文閱讀能力。
第六步:舉行「讀書會」,師生共同討論自己閱讀過的讀本,彼此分享選擇該書的原因、讀後感,或是故事大綱。筆者曾利用讀書會時間以投影機播放讀本封面和內頁插圖給學生看,並告訴學生閱讀時可運用的閱讀技巧、如何看圖猜測字義與故事大意,使學生能更順利地進行閱讀。除了小型讀書會外,老師也可邀請學校附近的圖書館人員或書商舉辦新書介紹活動[3]。
第七步:設計英文泛讀課程,讓學生在校有固定的閱讀時間,充份利用讀本資源。在泛讀課程開始前,可請班上的圖書館員將讀本陳列於桌上,供同學挑選,下課時再將讀本收置於上鎖的櫃子由專人保管,或是收入書箱,平時存放於老師的辦公室。
讀本挑選的原則
「英文閱讀」在台灣的中等學校通常僅被視為一密集的輔導課程,以幫助學生通過考試為目標,教學重點常集中於分析語言結構、單字和文法,因而大部份學生較無機會在課堂上享受英文泛讀,在課後也就更無足夠能力與習慣進行英語閱讀活動(Chern & Chi, 1988),一旦學生的閱讀能力不足,加上缺乏練習,就會愈不願嘗試英文閱讀,久而久之,閱讀情況便不可避免地會陷入如Nuttall(1996, p.127)所說的惡性循環“the vicious circle of the weak reader”中。因此,為幫助學生擺脫不擅閱讀的惡性循環,老師首先要完成的任務就是如何讓學生開始嘗試英文閱讀。
為促使學生發現閱讀的樂趣,讀本的選擇格外重要,這也是泛讀課程成功與否的關鍵所在。英語老師們在選擇讀本時,必須考慮以下幾項直接影響學生選擇讀本的因素[4]:
一、興趣:
學者(Worth, Moorman, & Turner. 1999. p. 15)指出:「對某事物的喜好,能鼓動和引發學習者從初淺的表面訊息了解,轉而進行更深入的知識探索。」所以老師的選書內容若能精準地與學生興趣一致,學生就會覺得讀本內容與他們有關聯,因而增加了閱讀的機會與興趣。舉筆者個人經驗為例,筆者曾透過一個簡單的問卷調查,得知大部份青少年對知名的電視影集、恐怖片、偵探片、懸疑片和冒險故事很有興趣,筆者便根據這些訊息來挑選讀本,成功地建立了教室圖書館(許炳煌, 2004a, b)。
二、讀本的外觀:
讀本的外觀,包含封面、版面設計、插圖和印刷字體的大小,都會影響讀者的閱讀選擇,而投讀者喜好的書籍外觀,對閱讀過程也會有幫助(許炳煌, 2004a)。Vandergrift(1980, p. 81)提到:「大部份的孩子和大人們都會比較喜歡選擇外觀看起來吸引人的書,對於那些外觀單調乏味、封面設計與內容無關的讀本,可能連看都不看一眼。」 Kragler和Nolley(1996)的報告中也建議,封面和插圖是讀者選擇讀本的兩個重要因素。也就是說,讀本外觀的視覺效果和內容品質是同樣的重要(Jones & Dawn, 2003)。因此,老師們選書時也應注意書本外觀是否能吸引學生的目光。
三、對主題知識是否能理解:
語言知識的不足以及缺乏運用圖解與背景知識的技巧,常會使英語為外語(EFL)或第二語(ESL)的學習者面臨許多不同的閱讀困難。舉例來說,學習者常會因對某事或地區的字彙和背景知識有限,無法看懂英文報紙的報導內容,特別是國際新聞。為瞭解生字的意思及整篇報導,他們可能一邊讀報一邊查字典,結果養成過度倚賴字典的壞習慣,而若不懂的情形一再發生,他們也有可能放棄英文報紙的閱讀學習。因此,老師應儘量避免採用學生較難瞭解其背景知識的主題讀本,以免打斷學生的閱讀動機或繼續閱讀的念頭。
四、讀本用字難易度:
造成EFL或ESL學習者閱讀困難的原因,文章用字難易度也是其一。如果用字難度超出學習者所具有的程度,他們當然會因看不懂內容而不願繼續讀下去。即使一開始讀本外觀能吸引學生,當他們閱讀後發現太難懂時,便有可能隨便翻翻或乾脆不讀。所以,為了讓「閱讀」成為EFL或ESL學生可以「看懂」的活動並建立其自信,比學生現有語言程度稍低的讀本,會是最佳的選擇(Day & Bamford, 1998)。
除了上述四項選書應注意的要項,老師們也可藉由問卷調查或與學生面談,深入瞭解班上學生的興趣喜好,進一步訂定更適用的選書原則。此外,老師們並可參考各出版社的暢銷書單或相關專業期刊的研究報告來選書(Hill, 2001)。
如何增加教室圖書館的英文讀本數量
為讓學生有充份的英文讀本可讀,如何增加教室圖書館的「館藏」是老師們會面臨到的問題。建議老師們可採用下列四種方法來增加英文讀本數量:
一、向教育局或是校內決策單位(校長室或教務處)提出與廣泛閱讀有關的研究報告或結果,申請或爭取書籍採購經費。
二、策劃家長座談會,介紹教室圖書館的構想與提升學生英語能力的想法給學生家長,邀請他們參與二手讀本或經費募集的樂捐活動。
三、詢問學校附近圖書館是否有汰換的英文讀本,收集以捐贈給學校將要設置的教室圖書館。依筆者經驗,利用此法通常可蒐集到相當多的二手讀本。
四、向當地的讀本出版商或代理書商說明設置教室圖書館的用意和目的,請他們捐贈一些讀本做為樣品供學生翻閱。當考量到日後可能有全校性的泛讀推廣活動,出版社或書商多會慷慨解囊捐贈讀本。
在向外界邀請捐贈的時候,老師們需要讓捐贈者瞭解教室圖書館或學生們的需求,以便讓捐贈者先對所欲捐贈的讀本進行篩選;有時,難免會收到太難、太簡單或暫時用不到的書籍,老師們可先暫為保管,以做為日後全校性的泛讀推廣活動之用。
鼓勵學生參與泛讀的方法
在泛讀課安靜的閱讀時間中,正值青少年時期的中學生可能會坐不住,甚至很快就感到枯燥無味,這時老師們有必要在課中加入一些可以引發他們閱讀興趣的活動。建議方法如下:
一、分組互動,例如分組進行討論、心得分享、重新描述讀本故事等活動。
二、請各組學生製作閱讀進度海報,張貼於教室佈告欄上。
三、老師一同參與閱讀。當學生進行閱讀時,老師別忘了要以身作則,自己也拿起英文書籍閱讀,讓學生了解老師也參與其中,而不是置身度外。
四、老師可朗讀或播放讀本所附的朗讀CD/錄音帶,與學生分享自己所喜歡的讀本故事。
五、老師發給各組不同讀本,請各組依據讀本故事內容進行角色扮演活動。
六、舉辦全班泛讀比賽,讀最多讀本或進步最多的個人或冠軍團體可獲得暢銷書、英話舞台劇或電影的門票等奬品。
七、老師於學期中或學期末觀察那些書最受學生歡迎喜愛,然後尋找看看是否有該故事的電影光碟或錄影帶,可利用課餘播放給學生觀賞,提升學生的閱讀動機與學習興趣。
結語
想要培養青少年學生的課外英文閱讀興趣,在教室設置一個屬於他們自己的圖書館實為上策,一來老師可藉此瞭解學生的閱讀興趣,二來學生在閱讀英文的過程中如有不懂的地方,也較能適時得到師生的協助。無可諱言,挑選適合青少年學生的讀本是一項具有挑戰性的工作,而設置教室圖書館更是一件苦差事,但是,當我們發現學生們開始喜歡英文閱讀,而培養出閱讀的興趣與習慣時,這一切的努力都是值得的,學生英語能力的提升也將指日可待。
參考書目
* 李思穎(1996)。The relationship of free voluntary reading to writing proficiency and academic achievement among Taiwanese high school students. 第五屆英語教學國際研討會論文集,台北。119-126頁。
* 李思穎(1998)。Effects of introducing pleasure reading and language acquisition theory on students’ attitudes toward the English class. Studies in English Language and Literature, 4, 21-28.
* 黃春騰(1997)。以學生為中心之高中英文閱讀教學實驗研究。國科會專題研究計畫。(NSC 86-2411-H-018-002)
* 許炳煌(2003)。Extensive reading with EFL learners at beginning level. TESL Reporter, 36, 8-20.
* 許炳煌(2004a)。Students’ reflection on the physical features of EFL graded readers. TESL Reporter, 37, 18-33.
* 許炳煌(2004b)。The effects of extensive reading on learners’ reading ability development. Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17(2), 213-228.
* 鄭錦桂、陳聿潔、蔡惠文(民91)。廣泛閱讀、猜字策略及偶發字彙習得相關性之探討。國科會專題研究計畫。(NSC 91-2411-H-034-012)
* Bell, T. (2001). Extensive reading: speed and comprehension. The Reading Matrix, 1 [On lime]. Available: http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/bell/index.html
* Bromann, J. (2001). Booktalking that works. New York: Neal-Schuman.
* Camiciottoli, B. C. (2001). Extensive reading in English: habits and attitudes of a group of Italian university EFL students. Journal of Research in Reading, 24, 135-153.
* Chern, C. & Chi, F. (1988). Teaching and learning of reading skills in senior secondary school in Taiwan. Paper given at the Fifth Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. Taiwan: The Crane Publishing.
* Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Davis, C. (1995). Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? ELT Journal, 49, 329-336.
* Eastment, D. (2002). ELT publishers. ELT Journal, 56(3), 342-343.
* Hayashi, K. (1999). Reading strategies and extensive reading in EFL classes. RELC journal, 30, 114-132.
* Hedge, T. (1985). Using readers in language teaching. Hertfordshire: Modern English Publications.
* Hill, D. R. (1993). EPER guide to rganizing programmes of extensive reading. Edinburgh: Institute for Applied Language Studies, University of Edinburgh.
* Hill, D. R. (2001). Survey: Graded readers. ELT Journal, 55, 300-324.
* Jones, P. & Fiorelli, D. C. (2003). Overcoming the obstacle course: Teenage boys and reading. Teacher Librarian, 30(3), [On lime]. Available: http://www.teacherlibrarian.com/tlmag/v_30/v_30_3_feature.html
* Klapper, J. (1992). Preliminary considerations for the teaching of FL reading. Language Learning Journal, 6, 53-56.
* Kragler, S. & Nolley, C. (1996). Student choices: book selection strategies of fourth graders. Reading Harizons, 36, 354-365.
* Krashen, S. D. (1993). The Power of Reading: Insight from the Research. Englandwood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, INC.
* Kuo, Y. H. (2001). “Extensive reading of simplied readers” versus “vocabulary memorization” in EFL learning: Which is more effect and pleasurable? 第十屆英語教學國際研討會論文集,台北。
* Lai, F.-K. (1993). The effect of a summer reading course on reading and writing skills. System, 21, 87-100.
* Mason, B., & Krashen, S. D. (1997b). Extensive reading in English as a foreign language. System, 25, 91-102.
* Ng, S. M., & Sullivan, C. (2001). The Singapore reading and English acquisition program. International Journal of Educational Research, 35, 157-167.
* Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Heinmann Press.
* Pilgreen, J. L. (2000). The SSR handbook: how to organize and manage a sustained silent reading program. Portsmouth, NH: Boyton/Cook Publishers.
* Raj, D., & Hunt. B. (1990). The Malaysian class readers programme. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6, 369-382.
* Swartz, M. K., & Hendricks, C. G. (2000). Factors that influence the book selection process of students with special needs. Journal of adolescent & Adult Literacy, 43, 608-618.
* Thomson, J. L. (1987). Understanding teenagers’ reading: reading process and the teaching of literature. New York: Nichols.
* Tsang, W-K. (1996). Comparing the effects of reading and writing on writing performance. Applied Linguistics, 17, 210-33.
* Vandergrift, K. (1980). Child and Story: The Literary Connection. New York: Neal-Schuman.
附錄
◎出版社讀本目錄網站舉隅
大部份出版社或代理書商在商品網站上,都有提供與讀本相關的資訊,網站例舉如下(Eastment, 2002):
出版社 網址
敦煌書局 http://www.cavesbooks.com.tw/Bookstore/List.asp
Cambridge University Press http://www.cambridge.org/elt/readers
Express Publishing http://www.expresspublishing.co.uk
Macmillan Heinemann Education http://www.onestopenglish.com/readers
Oxford University Press http://www.oup.com/elt/global/teachersclub/products/readers
Penguin Longman Publishing http://www.penguinreaders.com
◎分級讀本(graded readers)叢書舉隅
為提升英語為第二語言/外語學習者英語能力,選書時使用針對不同程度學生所編寫的分級讀本(graded readers),學習成效會較為顯著。筆者例舉十七種系列讀本供老師們選擇參考:
出版社 讀本系列 適用程度 單字數量
敦煌書局 Easy Readers 敦煌簡易文學讀本系列 三級(Beginning~Advanced) 1000~2000
Cambridge University Press Cambridge English Readers 1(Beginner)~6(Advanced) 400~3800
Chancerel Detective English Readers Pre-intermediate Unknown
Cideb Editrice(敦煌書局代理) Reading and Training閱讀訓練簡易讀本系列 五級(Beginning~Advanced) Unknown
Express Publishing Express Readers 1(Beginner)~4(Intermediate) Unknown
Macmillan Heinemann Heinemann Guided Readers Starter-Upper 300~2200
Heinemann New Wave Readers 1(Beginner)~
4(Upper-Intermediate) 300~2000
Oxford University Press(敦煌書局代理) Oxford Progressive English Readers (牛津簡易英文讀本系列) 五級(Beginning~Advanced) Unknown
Oxford Hotshop Puzzles 1(Beginner)~
4(Pre-Intermediate) 200~500
Oxford Bookworms Starters (牛津書蟲讀本初階系列) 1(Beginner) 250
Oxford Bookworms Library (牛津書蟲讀本) 1(Elementary)~6(Advanced) 400~2500
Oxford Bookworms Factfiles 1(Elementary)~
4(Pre-Intermediate) 400~1400
Oxford Classic Tables 1(Beginner)~4(Elementary) 100~400
Storylines Graded Reader 1(Elementary)~
4(Intermediate) 400~1250
Papazissis Publishers International Learning System Readers Pre-intermediate~Advanced Unknown
Penguin Longman Publishing(敦煌書局代理) Penguin Readers Easystarts~6(Advanced) 200~3000
Richmond Publishing Richmond Readers Starter~4(Upper-intermediate) 300~1800
作者簡介
◎ 英國國立華威大學 英語教學哲學博士
◎ 曾任德明技術學院 應用外語系助理教授兼系主任
◎ 現任國立台北教育大學 兒童英語教育學系助理教授
[1] 關於廣泛閱讀的研究資料,讀者可參考資料如下:Bell, 2001; Camiciottoli, 2001; Davis, 1995; Hayashi, 1999; Krashen, 1993; Lai, 1993; Masnson & Krashen, 1997; Ng & Sullivan, 2001; Pilgreen, 2000; Raj & Hunt, 1990; Tsang, 1996. 此外,在台灣也一些老師研究泛讀與以技能為主的閱讀課程(skill-based reading instruction, SRI)對台灣學生閱讀能力發展的成效,如:鄭錦桂、陳聿潔、蔡惠文(民91)、黃春騰(民86)、李思穎(民85, 87)、Kuo(2001)、許炳煌(民92)。這些研究顯示泛讀組的學生在基本技巧閱讀能力上有顯著進步,同時對英語閱讀也持比較正面的態度。
[2] 例如日本(Manson & Krashen, 1997)、香港(Lai, 1993; Tsang, 1996)、馬來西亞(Raj & Hunt, 1990)和新加坡(Davis, 1995; Ng & Sullivan, 2001)。
[3] Neal-Schuman(2001)提出老師可與學校當地圖書館人員或書商共同舉辦新書介紹活動的構想。而對於「新書座談會」的運作技巧,有興趣的老師可參考Jennifer Bromann (2001). Booktalking that works. New York: Neal-Schuman.
[4] 有關影響學生選擇讀本的因素,讀者如有興趣可進一步詳見以下學者的著作資料:Nuttall(1996)、Swartz & Hendricks(2000)、Worthy, Moorman, & Turner(1999)。
提昇語言能力 從廣泛閱讀開始
「廣泛閱讀」(extensive reading,或簡稱「泛讀」)有助於語言能力成長,近年來為國內外學者大為提倡,並有許多研究結果可茲證實[1]。語言學習者藉由「廣泛閱讀」──大量的閱讀輸入(input-rich),能提升閱讀能力並啟發學習慾望,同時練習閱讀課中所學的閱讀技巧、體驗日常生活的真實閱讀(authentic reading),因此廣泛閱讀被視為增進閱讀能力以及世界知識不可或缺的方法,許多亞洲國家並已將其納入以英語為第二語言或外語的課程內容中[2]。
知名學者Smith強調越早培養閱讀習慣有助於提升第二語言或外語能力。而且,閱讀習慣的建立並不是一蹴可幾,必須經常性的閱讀練習,藉此,字彙量會逐漸增加,閱讀理解能力也會提升,進而對英語學習感興趣。因此,「廣泛閱讀」對於中學生的英語學習有相當的重要性與幫助。但是,老師鼓勵學生進行泛讀時,學生不願主動到圖書館借閱英文讀本怎麼辦?其實,老師也可將讀本帶到教室,可行的方法之一,就是在教室內成立一個小型的圖書館。相信大部份老師不會反對這樣的建議,可是真正要著手成立教室圖書館,對平時教課忙碌的老師而言的確是個挑戰。以下筆者根據自身經驗,與老師們分享成立教師圖書館的步驟與方法,並提供選擇讀本的技巧和建議,希藉成立教室圖書館,為學生開啟泛讀之窗。
如何成立教室圖書館
綜合學者的建議(Hedge, 1985; Hill, 1993; Nuttall, 1996; Pilgreen, 2000),老師們可採行以下七個簡單步驟,著手設置教室圖書館:
第一步:查閱現有出版社的紙本目錄或網站上的目錄(請參見文末附錄),獲得各類讀本資訊。通常各家出版社目錄皆有詳列讀本書名、封面、範例頁與內容簡介,老師可從目錄中略知讀本概貌。
第二步:思考學生會因什麼樣的喜好來選書閱讀,列出一份預定購置的讀本清單,並從中挑出一些讀本先讓學生試閱,以便了解所選讀本是否符合他們的喜好。若學生的反應是正面的,則可放心地開始購置清單上的讀本;若為負面反應,則須再謹慎檢討讀本清單,重新挑選。老師也可找幾位學生當面詢問他們的意見或建議。
第三步:設法從學校週遭環境尋求捐贈讀本的對象,以增加教室圖書館的讀本數量(詳見下文方法舉例)。
第四步:學生開始進行讀本閱讀之前,先向學生介紹教室圖書館的維護與運作概念,與學生一起訂定教室圖書館的借閱規則,並鼓勵或邀請學生自願擔任圖書館員。
第五步:訓練學生運用閱讀技巧的能力,使學生的英文閱讀能真正進入狀況。例如,遇到生字時如何試從上下文了解字義;叮嚀學生非必要儘量不用英漢字典,以免失去廣泛閱讀的原意和目的。如必須使用字典,則可鼓勵學生查閱英英字典,以提升英文閱讀能力。
第六步:舉行「讀書會」,師生共同討論自己閱讀過的讀本,彼此分享選擇該書的原因、讀後感,或是故事大綱。筆者曾利用讀書會時間以投影機播放讀本封面和內頁插圖給學生看,並告訴學生閱讀時可運用的閱讀技巧、如何看圖猜測字義與故事大意,使學生能更順利地進行閱讀。除了小型讀書會外,老師也可邀請學校附近的圖書館人員或書商舉辦新書介紹活動[3]。
第七步:設計英文泛讀課程,讓學生在校有固定的閱讀時間,充份利用讀本資源。在泛讀課程開始前,可請班上的圖書館員將讀本陳列於桌上,供同學挑選,下課時再將讀本收置於上鎖的櫃子由專人保管,或是收入書箱,平時存放於老師的辦公室。
讀本挑選的原則
「英文閱讀」在台灣的中等學校通常僅被視為一密集的輔導課程,以幫助學生通過考試為目標,教學重點常集中於分析語言結構、單字和文法,因而大部份學生較無機會在課堂上享受英文泛讀,在課後也就更無足夠能力與習慣進行英語閱讀活動(Chern & Chi, 1988),一旦學生的閱讀能力不足,加上缺乏練習,就會愈不願嘗試英文閱讀,久而久之,閱讀情況便不可避免地會陷入如Nuttall(1996, p.127)所說的惡性循環“the vicious circle of the weak reader”中。因此,為幫助學生擺脫不擅閱讀的惡性循環,老師首先要完成的任務就是如何讓學生開始嘗試英文閱讀。
為促使學生發現閱讀的樂趣,讀本的選擇格外重要,這也是泛讀課程成功與否的關鍵所在。英語老師們在選擇讀本時,必須考慮以下幾項直接影響學生選擇讀本的因素[4]:
一、興趣:
學者(Worth, Moorman, & Turner. 1999. p. 15)指出:「對某事物的喜好,能鼓動和引發學習者從初淺的表面訊息了解,轉而進行更深入的知識探索。」所以老師的選書內容若能精準地與學生興趣一致,學生就會覺得讀本內容與他們有關聯,因而增加了閱讀的機會與興趣。舉筆者個人經驗為例,筆者曾透過一個簡單的問卷調查,得知大部份青少年對知名的電視影集、恐怖片、偵探片、懸疑片和冒險故事很有興趣,筆者便根據這些訊息來挑選讀本,成功地建立了教室圖書館(許炳煌, 2004a, b)。
二、讀本的外觀:
讀本的外觀,包含封面、版面設計、插圖和印刷字體的大小,都會影響讀者的閱讀選擇,而投讀者喜好的書籍外觀,對閱讀過程也會有幫助(許炳煌, 2004a)。Vandergrift(1980, p. 81)提到:「大部份的孩子和大人們都會比較喜歡選擇外觀看起來吸引人的書,對於那些外觀單調乏味、封面設計與內容無關的讀本,可能連看都不看一眼。」 Kragler和Nolley(1996)的報告中也建議,封面和插圖是讀者選擇讀本的兩個重要因素。也就是說,讀本外觀的視覺效果和內容品質是同樣的重要(Jones & Dawn, 2003)。因此,老師們選書時也應注意書本外觀是否能吸引學生的目光。
三、對主題知識是否能理解:
語言知識的不足以及缺乏運用圖解與背景知識的技巧,常會使英語為外語(EFL)或第二語(ESL)的學習者面臨許多不同的閱讀困難。舉例來說,學習者常會因對某事或地區的字彙和背景知識有限,無法看懂英文報紙的報導內容,特別是國際新聞。為瞭解生字的意思及整篇報導,他們可能一邊讀報一邊查字典,結果養成過度倚賴字典的壞習慣,而若不懂的情形一再發生,他們也有可能放棄英文報紙的閱讀學習。因此,老師應儘量避免採用學生較難瞭解其背景知識的主題讀本,以免打斷學生的閱讀動機或繼續閱讀的念頭。
四、讀本用字難易度:
造成EFL或ESL學習者閱讀困難的原因,文章用字難易度也是其一。如果用字難度超出學習者所具有的程度,他們當然會因看不懂內容而不願繼續讀下去。即使一開始讀本外觀能吸引學生,當他們閱讀後發現太難懂時,便有可能隨便翻翻或乾脆不讀。所以,為了讓「閱讀」成為EFL或ESL學生可以「看懂」的活動並建立其自信,比學生現有語言程度稍低的讀本,會是最佳的選擇(Day & Bamford, 1998)。
除了上述四項選書應注意的要項,老師們也可藉由問卷調查或與學生面談,深入瞭解班上學生的興趣喜好,進一步訂定更適用的選書原則。此外,老師們並可參考各出版社的暢銷書單或相關專業期刊的研究報告來選書(Hill, 2001)。
如何增加教室圖書館的英文讀本數量
為讓學生有充份的英文讀本可讀,如何增加教室圖書館的「館藏」是老師們會面臨到的問題。建議老師們可採用下列四種方法來增加英文讀本數量:
一、向教育局或是校內決策單位(校長室或教務處)提出與廣泛閱讀有關的研究報告或結果,申請或爭取書籍採購經費。
二、策劃家長座談會,介紹教室圖書館的構想與提升學生英語能力的想法給學生家長,邀請他們參與二手讀本或經費募集的樂捐活動。
三、詢問學校附近圖書館是否有汰換的英文讀本,收集以捐贈給學校將要設置的教室圖書館。依筆者經驗,利用此法通常可蒐集到相當多的二手讀本。
四、向當地的讀本出版商或代理書商說明設置教室圖書館的用意和目的,請他們捐贈一些讀本做為樣品供學生翻閱。當考量到日後可能有全校性的泛讀推廣活動,出版社或書商多會慷慨解囊捐贈讀本。
在向外界邀請捐贈的時候,老師們需要讓捐贈者瞭解教室圖書館或學生們的需求,以便讓捐贈者先對所欲捐贈的讀本進行篩選;有時,難免會收到太難、太簡單或暫時用不到的書籍,老師們可先暫為保管,以做為日後全校性的泛讀推廣活動之用。
鼓勵學生參與泛讀的方法
在泛讀課安靜的閱讀時間中,正值青少年時期的中學生可能會坐不住,甚至很快就感到枯燥無味,這時老師們有必要在課中加入一些可以引發他們閱讀興趣的活動。建議方法如下:
一、分組互動,例如分組進行討論、心得分享、重新描述讀本故事等活動。
二、請各組學生製作閱讀進度海報,張貼於教室佈告欄上。
三、老師一同參與閱讀。當學生進行閱讀時,老師別忘了要以身作則,自己也拿起英文書籍閱讀,讓學生了解老師也參與其中,而不是置身度外。
四、老師可朗讀或播放讀本所附的朗讀CD/錄音帶,與學生分享自己所喜歡的讀本故事。
五、老師發給各組不同讀本,請各組依據讀本故事內容進行角色扮演活動。
六、舉辦全班泛讀比賽,讀最多讀本或進步最多的個人或冠軍團體可獲得暢銷書、英話舞台劇或電影的門票等奬品。
七、老師於學期中或學期末觀察那些書最受學生歡迎喜愛,然後尋找看看是否有該故事的電影光碟或錄影帶,可利用課餘播放給學生觀賞,提升學生的閱讀動機與學習興趣。
結語
想要培養青少年學生的課外英文閱讀興趣,在教室設置一個屬於他們自己的圖書館實為上策,一來老師可藉此瞭解學生的閱讀興趣,二來學生在閱讀英文的過程中如有不懂的地方,也較能適時得到師生的協助。無可諱言,挑選適合青少年學生的讀本是一項具有挑戰性的工作,而設置教室圖書館更是一件苦差事,但是,當我們發現學生們開始喜歡英文閱讀,而培養出閱讀的興趣與習慣時,這一切的努力都是值得的,學生英語能力的提升也將指日可待。
參考書目
* 李思穎(1996)。The relationship of free voluntary reading to writing proficiency and academic achievement among Taiwanese high school students. 第五屆英語教學國際研討會論文集,台北。119-126頁。
* 李思穎(1998)。Effects of introducing pleasure reading and language acquisition theory on students’ attitudes toward the English class. Studies in English Language and Literature, 4, 21-28.
* 黃春騰(1997)。以學生為中心之高中英文閱讀教學實驗研究。國科會專題研究計畫。(NSC 86-2411-H-018-002)
* 許炳煌(2003)。Extensive reading with EFL learners at beginning level. TESL Reporter, 36, 8-20.
* 許炳煌(2004a)。Students’ reflection on the physical features of EFL graded readers. TESL Reporter, 37, 18-33.
* 許炳煌(2004b)。The effects of extensive reading on learners’ reading ability development. Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17(2), 213-228.
* 鄭錦桂、陳聿潔、蔡惠文(民91)。廣泛閱讀、猜字策略及偶發字彙習得相關性之探討。國科會專題研究計畫。(NSC 91-2411-H-034-012)
* Bell, T. (2001). Extensive reading: speed and comprehension. The Reading Matrix, 1 [On lime]. Available: http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/bell/index.html
* Bromann, J. (2001). Booktalking that works. New York: Neal-Schuman.
* Camiciottoli, B. C. (2001). Extensive reading in English: habits and attitudes of a group of Italian university EFL students. Journal of Research in Reading, 24, 135-153.
* Chern, C. & Chi, F. (1988). Teaching and learning of reading skills in senior secondary school in Taiwan. Paper given at the Fifth Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. Taiwan: The Crane Publishing.
* Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Davis, C. (1995). Extensive reading: an expensive extravagance? ELT Journal, 49, 329-336.
* Eastment, D. (2002). ELT publishers. ELT Journal, 56(3), 342-343.
* Hayashi, K. (1999). Reading strategies and extensive reading in EFL classes. RELC journal, 30, 114-132.
* Hedge, T. (1985). Using readers in language teaching. Hertfordshire: Modern English Publications.
* Hill, D. R. (1993). EPER guide to rganizing programmes of extensive reading. Edinburgh: Institute for Applied Language Studies, University of Edinburgh.
* Hill, D. R. (2001). Survey: Graded readers. ELT Journal, 55, 300-324.
* Jones, P. & Fiorelli, D. C. (2003). Overcoming the obstacle course: Teenage boys and reading. Teacher Librarian, 30(3), [On lime]. Available: http://www.teacherlibrarian.com/tlmag/v_30/v_30_3_feature.html
* Klapper, J. (1992). Preliminary considerations for the teaching of FL reading. Language Learning Journal, 6, 53-56.
* Kragler, S. & Nolley, C. (1996). Student choices: book selection strategies of fourth graders. Reading Harizons, 36, 354-365.
* Krashen, S. D. (1993). The Power of Reading: Insight from the Research. Englandwood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, INC.
* Kuo, Y. H. (2001). “Extensive reading of simplied readers” versus “vocabulary memorization” in EFL learning: Which is more effect and pleasurable? 第十屆英語教學國際研討會論文集,台北。
* Lai, F.-K. (1993). The effect of a summer reading course on reading and writing skills. System, 21, 87-100.
* Mason, B., & Krashen, S. D. (1997b). Extensive reading in English as a foreign language. System, 25, 91-102.
* Ng, S. M., & Sullivan, C. (2001). The Singapore reading and English acquisition program. International Journal of Educational Research, 35, 157-167.
* Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. (2nd ed.). Oxford: Heinmann Press.
* Pilgreen, J. L. (2000). The SSR handbook: how to organize and manage a sustained silent reading program. Portsmouth, NH: Boyton/Cook Publishers.
* Raj, D., & Hunt. B. (1990). The Malaysian class readers programme. Reading in a Foreign Language, 6, 369-382.
* Swartz, M. K., & Hendricks, C. G. (2000). Factors that influence the book selection process of students with special needs. Journal of adolescent & Adult Literacy, 43, 608-618.
* Thomson, J. L. (1987). Understanding teenagers’ reading: reading process and the teaching of literature. New York: Nichols.
* Tsang, W-K. (1996). Comparing the effects of reading and writing on writing performance. Applied Linguistics, 17, 210-33.
* Vandergrift, K. (1980). Child and Story: The Literary Connection. New York: Neal-Schuman.
附錄
◎出版社讀本目錄網站舉隅
大部份出版社或代理書商在商品網站上,都有提供與讀本相關的資訊,網站例舉如下(Eastment, 2002):
出版社 網址
敦煌書局 http://www.cavesbooks.com.tw/Bookstore/List.asp
Cambridge University Press http://www.cambridge.org/elt/readers
Express Publishing http://www.expresspublishing.co.uk
Macmillan Heinemann Education http://www.onestopenglish.com/readers
Oxford University Press http://www.oup.com/elt/global/teachersclub/products/readers
Penguin Longman Publishing http://www.penguinreaders.com
◎分級讀本(graded readers)叢書舉隅
為提升英語為第二語言/外語學習者英語能力,選書時使用針對不同程度學生所編寫的分級讀本(graded readers),學習成效會較為顯著。筆者例舉十七種系列讀本供老師們選擇參考:
出版社 讀本系列 適用程度 單字數量
敦煌書局 Easy Readers 敦煌簡易文學讀本系列 三級(Beginning~Advanced) 1000~2000
Cambridge University Press Cambridge English Readers 1(Beginner)~6(Advanced) 400~3800
Chancerel Detective English Readers Pre-intermediate Unknown
Cideb Editrice(敦煌書局代理) Reading and Training閱讀訓練簡易讀本系列 五級(Beginning~Advanced) Unknown
Express Publishing Express Readers 1(Beginner)~4(Intermediate) Unknown
Macmillan Heinemann Heinemann Guided Readers Starter-Upper 300~2200
Heinemann New Wave Readers 1(Beginner)~
4(Upper-Intermediate) 300~2000
Oxford University Press(敦煌書局代理) Oxford Progressive English Readers (牛津簡易英文讀本系列) 五級(Beginning~Advanced) Unknown
Oxford Hotshop Puzzles 1(Beginner)~
4(Pre-Intermediate) 200~500
Oxford Bookworms Starters (牛津書蟲讀本初階系列) 1(Beginner) 250
Oxford Bookworms Library (牛津書蟲讀本) 1(Elementary)~6(Advanced) 400~2500
Oxford Bookworms Factfiles 1(Elementary)~
4(Pre-Intermediate) 400~1400
Oxford Classic Tables 1(Beginner)~4(Elementary) 100~400
Storylines Graded Reader 1(Elementary)~
4(Intermediate) 400~1250
Papazissis Publishers International Learning System Readers Pre-intermediate~Advanced Unknown
Penguin Longman Publishing(敦煌書局代理) Penguin Readers Easystarts~6(Advanced) 200~3000
Richmond Publishing Richmond Readers Starter~4(Upper-intermediate) 300~1800
作者簡介
◎ 英國國立華威大學 英語教學哲學博士
◎ 曾任德明技術學院 應用外語系助理教授兼系主任
◎ 現任國立台北教育大學 兒童英語教育學系助理教授
[1] 關於廣泛閱讀的研究資料,讀者可參考資料如下:Bell, 2001; Camiciottoli, 2001; Davis, 1995; Hayashi, 1999; Krashen, 1993; Lai, 1993; Masnson & Krashen, 1997; Ng & Sullivan, 2001; Pilgreen, 2000; Raj & Hunt, 1990; Tsang, 1996. 此外,在台灣也一些老師研究泛讀與以技能為主的閱讀課程(skill-based reading instruction, SRI)對台灣學生閱讀能力發展的成效,如:鄭錦桂、陳聿潔、蔡惠文(民91)、黃春騰(民86)、李思穎(民85, 87)、Kuo(2001)、許炳煌(民92)。這些研究顯示泛讀組的學生在基本技巧閱讀能力上有顯著進步,同時對英語閱讀也持比較正面的態度。
[2] 例如日本(Manson & Krashen, 1997)、香港(Lai, 1993; Tsang, 1996)、馬來西亞(Raj & Hunt, 1990)和新加坡(Davis, 1995; Ng & Sullivan, 2001)。
[3] Neal-Schuman(2001)提出老師可與學校當地圖書館人員或書商共同舉辦新書介紹活動的構想。而對於「新書座談會」的運作技巧,有興趣的老師可參考Jennifer Bromann (2001). Booktalking that works. New York: Neal-Schuman.
[4] 有關影響學生選擇讀本的因素,讀者如有興趣可進一步詳見以下學者的著作資料:Nuttall(1996)、Swartz & Hendricks(2000)、Worthy, Moorman, & Turner(1999)。
Teaching with the Leximodel
◎ Quentin Brand & Joe Lavallee
Introduction
The communicative approach has become very widely practiced in Taiwan language classrooms. Teachers and students are now used to the idea that the greater portion of classroom time should be spent on communicative task-based activities, such as information gap, communicative games, and topic-based or free conversation. This is certainly a marked improvement on the previous grammar-translation method. However, in recent years, there has been increasing mention of a lexical approach, with publishers such as Thomson Learning (Innovations, Conversation Gambits, Conversation Lessons) Macmillan, (the In Company series, the Inside Out series, Email English etc.), producing coursebooks and materials using it. Like many teachers in Taiwan, you may think: “I've heard of the lexical approach, but I don't know what it is, I don't know how to use it, and I don't know why I should use it.” The rest of this article will focus on answering these concerns.
What is the lexical approach?
The lexical approach was invented by Michael Lewis and Jimmy Hill in the early 1990s, and is now quite common in some well known coursebooks, including those mentioned above. It is based on two key principles:
1.
the grammar/vocabulary view of language is invalid
2.
collocation is central to language and language learning
The lexical approach is a classroom practice that reflects the current understanding of language as consisting of a vast collection of multi-word items. For most teachers and ESL professionals, our previous understanding of language was that it consisted of grammar patterns with vocabulary slotted in. Vocabulary has traditionally been taught as single word items, with collocates and idioms introduced for a bit of color in the “boring” grammar-based classroom. The current view of language accepted by most theorists, however, is that collocation is central and that the border between grammar and vocabulary is much more blurred than we thought. Instead of the grammar/vocabulary divide, teachers and learners should think of language as consisting of a very large collection of multi-word items (MWI) called the lexicon[1]. The focus in this teaching approach is on helping learners master this lexicon.
In many cases, the best ways to master the lexicon, and therefore to produce language, are already quite familiar to teachers in Taiwan. We all know that, as Stephen Krashen has told us, large amounts of comprehensible input (with graded readers, etc.) are essential. We all know that there are times when a “focus on form” is appropriate, through noticing and language awareness activities. And we all know that communicative activities have an important place in the language classroom. What the lexical approach does is to combine all of these good teaching ideas with a better awareness of the real nature of language and language learning.
Why should I use the lexical approach with my students?
In our experience, problems that students encounter include the following:
“I know the word, but not how to use it.”
“I understand all the words in the sentence but I still don't understand the sentence.”
“I don't know how to study on my own.”
“I do well on my tests but I have a hard time talking with foreigners.”
“I've been studying for many years, but I seem to be stuck at the same level.”
Because the lexical approach emphasizes collocation, getting the students to move from focusing on the meaning of single words to learning how to use multi-word items is the single most helpful thing they can do to overcome the above problems. Encouraging greater awareness of how language operates (rather than learning more and more grammar rules) is another.
In the lexical approach, the traditional present-practice-produce lesson structure is replaced by an observe–hypothesize–experiment paradigm. This goes hand-in-hand with abandoning the grammar/vocabulary model in favor of a lexicon-based understanding of language. Students are encouraged to observe patterns of language--usually as multi-word items, hypothesize about their form, meaning, and use and then experiment using them to meet their own communicative needs. In practical terms, this means activities such as identifying and extracting language items in authentic written and spoken texts or sorting previously-selected language items into categories, noticing how the language items are used in a familiar context, and then using the language items in more unfamiliar contexts.
Let's take an example using the teaching of “so” and “such”. A traditional grammar translation or even a communicative “focus on form” approach would focus on a description of the grammar rule. (for example: ‘so’ is usually used to modify an adjective or an adverb, while ‘such’ is usually used to modify a noun phrase). A lexical approach, by contrast, would teach the most frequent words which occur with ‘so’ and the most frequent words which occur with ‘such’ as single lexical items, which we call Multi Word Items, or MWIs. You'll see some examples in task 1 below. (These MWIs can be easily found with a bit of Corpus Linguistics (CL) research.). To help you understand this concept better, you might want to try the following task. This task is designed for teachers and readers of this article, but you might like to try it with your students if they are intermediate level or above.
Task 1: Sort the following items into groups. You decide how many groups, and what the groups are.
such things
so much n.p.
so far
such a large
in such a manner that v.p.
so funny that v.p.
such a lot of n.p.
so many n.p.
such a big n.p.
so that v.p.
such a case
so cold that v.p.
so busy in such a way that v.p.
so easy
such a success
so enjoyable
so excited
so good
such a long time
so important
so kind
such a good idea
so long
such a large amount
so quickly
Two points are worth stressing here.
1.
The personal choice of categories allows the learner to build personally meaningful connections in their memory, helping them to expand their lexicon. Students may not even be able to articulate the reasons for their categorizations, or be able to describe their categories, but that is not the point. “If our target is the creation of effective learning conditions, [then] the students write their own grammar rules.” (Lewis, The Lexical Approach. p.149) The teacher's role is to provide correct MWIs for the students to categorize, to show the students some categories which might be useful to the students after they have done the sorting task (in this case two groups: MWIs with so and MWIs with such), and then to set up meaningful tasks in which the students can become familiar with and use the language.
2.
Rather than teaching this area of the language as a grammar rule to be applied, teaching it instead as fixed lexical items, or MWIs, to be memorized and recalled, takes advantage of one of the strengths of learners in Taiwan. Learners in Taiwan excel at memorizing items. So it makes more sense to give them language as lexical items to use instead of teaching them language as rules to be applied. With a lexical approach, the learning style used in Taiwan thus becomes a major advantage. Students who can remember large numbers of useful language items are able to communicate quickly and effectively.
What problems might teachers encounter with the lexical approach?
In talking to teachers about the lexical approach, the authors have noticed some of the following frequently occurring responses.
“The lexical approach sounds like a good idea, but how can I use it to build a syllabus?”
“What level is it for?”
“The lexicon is too big! How can I make sense of it in a way that helps my students?”
“At least teaching language as grammar and vocabulary gives me a systematic way to present English to my students.”
“It just seems too vague to be practical.”
A central theme in all of the objections is that there does not seem to be any easy way of categorizing the MWIs which make up the lexicon. At first, the lexicon simply seems like a huge unwieldy collection of multi-word items. The rest of this article will present a way of categorizing the lexicon which is specifically designed for classroom use, for students of a lower intermediate level or above, for teachers and students: the Leximodel. We'll present the Leximodel first and then show how you can use it with your coursebook to bring the lexicon to the center of your teaching.
The Leximodel
The first thing a student needs to know about an MWI is how fixed or fluid it is. The more fixed an MWI, the easier it is to learn by heart, while more fluid MWIs on the other hand, may require that the students learn more options. For example, “listen” is usually always followed by “to”, so we can call this a very fixed MWI, while “apple” can be followed by “cart”, “pie”, “tree”, “tart”. This MWI is more fluid. We can therefore say that MWIs can be placed along a spectrum of predictability, according to how fixed or fluid they are, or in other words, according to how easy it is to predict the next word.
The spectrum of predictability is the basis of the Leximodel. MWIs can be roughly categorized into three very broad groups and placed on the spectrum.
1.
The first group we call chunks. Chunks combine a meaning word (e.g.: listen) and a function word (e.g.: to) in any combination. They are fixed from left to right (along the horizontal axis) (listen comes before to) but are more fluid in some of the vertical slots (listen can sometimes be listened or listening). To give another example of what we mean by this: in the chunk provide sb with sth, the words must come in this order, (if you switch sb and sth then you need to change the preposition, creating in effect a new chunk: provide sth to sb) but sb and sth can be any noun or noun phrase. Focusing on chunks will have the effect of improving grammar, as many verb tenses, passive and conditional constructions, dependent prepositions, two object verbs etc. can be memorized as chunks. Chunks are placed in the center of the spectrum of predictability, as they combine fixed and fluid elements.
2.
The second group of MWIs we call set-phrases. These are longer and more fixed than chunks and typically are formed by combinations of chunks. Set-phrases usually have a beginning or an end or both. How are you? I'm fine, thanks, and you? Would you mind Ving? Could you tell me…? In this essay I will try to V…, please do not hesitate to contact me. are all examples of set-phrases, some from conversation, and some from writing. You can see from these examples that set-phrases are the transactional elements of language, whether the everyday phrases we use in conversation, or the organization phrases we use in academic or business writing. Focusing on set-phrases will have the effect of improving the functional, transactional language that we all need to conduct our lives in the foreign language. Because they are more fixed than chunks, we put set-phrases to the left on the spectrum of predictability.
3.
At the other end of the spectrum, the fluid end on the right, we have our third group of MWIs, which we call word partnerships. Word partnerships are two or more meaning words (such as apple and pie) which appear momentarily together in a text. The range of subsequent words available to the head word is determined by the topic of the text. For example, the word crisis is more likely to form partnerships with words like hostage, political, national, serious etc. in a newspaper story about a current event, while if it appears in a business report it might appear with a different group of words, such as growing, fiscal, financial or cash. Further, if the same word appears in a psychological report, it might appear with words like mid-life, identity, family or personal. Focusing on word partnerships is a very efficient way of increasing vocabulary, as they are the MWIs most closely associated with the meaning of the text, or the topic of the conversation. The completed Leximodel thus looks like this:
You might want to try the following task now to consolidate your understanding of the Leximodel. The answers are at the end of the article.
Task 2: Sort these MWIs into the table below.
…so that's ready to go.
a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
air pollution
be based on
be busy V/ing
be busy with s/th
be capable of
be committed to V/ing
traffic jams
dangerous crosswalks
Could I have some more sugar, please?
deal with
decide to
encounter difficulties
find an easy solution
for example
for many years
have a break
have a situation
I think we should wait.
If you have any questions, please call me. in and out
In conclusion, I feel the time is right for…
in the meantime
in the middle (of the)
potluck dinner
party time
It would be better to wait and see.
Would you mind…?
It's raining cats and dogs
Let's turn now to profits.
of course
On the other hand, …
answering machine
take a risk
take action
take on
take precautions
There's every possibility of a typhoon.
Time and tide wait for no man.
up and down
What are you talking about?
What do you think of my new….?
set-phrases chunks word partnerships
How can teachers use the Leximodel in the class?
The Leximodel is a classroom tool for teachers and learners to help them categorize the lexicon while always keeping them focused directly on language itself and not on descriptions of what the language is. The advantage of the Leximodel for teachers and students is that there are only three very broad categories, the categories are quite easy to understand and relate quite simply to what the students already know or can grasp intuitively about language (the meaning/function distinction is a good example), and the names of the categories are appropriate and easy to remember. Above all, the Leximodel will get your students to move away from being too concerned with the meaning of single words and getting them to focus on the way MWIs are used.
The Leximodel works best for students who are of a lower intermediate level or above, who are already equipped with some awareness of the basic vocabulary and grammar of English. However, even with elementary students or beginners, when presenting new vocabulary and grammar for the first time, teachers should always bear in mind the principle of the Leximodel, which is that words never appear alone. For example, when you are teaching sense verbs for the first time, remember to teach them as listen to, look at and so on, rather than just teaching listen and look. If you can train your students from the beginning to look at language as a collection of MWIs, and get them to focus on the individual MWIs, you will be giving them a solid foundation for lifelong language learning.
A useful principle to remember about the Leximodel and which levels to use it with is this: lower level students need more set-phrases because they need immediately useful language to help them survive in the foreign language community. Advanced students, on the other hand, need more word partnerships because they need to be able to express themselves on wide range of quite specialist topics. Lower levels find it much easier to remember long strings of quite easy words which are immediately useful: (Could you help me?), while higher levels have more language ability to cope with the fluidity of low frequency word partnerships (rapid/racing/slow/faint pulse). When teaching low levels, teach high frequency chunks, and when teaching high levels, teach low frequency chunks. This means that as students begin their journey of language learning, they start on the left hand side of the Leximodel (the fixed side) and progress gradually along the spectrum of predictability, increasing their level, until they reach very low frequency obscure or specialist word partnerships on the fluid side on the right.
We're now going to show you some tasks based on the principles of the lexical approach discussed above, which apply the Leximodel to some popular coursebooks.
Example 1: Working with word partnerships
From Reading Strategies Book1 (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
Task 1: You are going to read an article called “Music & moods”. With your partner write a list of words you think might appear in the article.
Task 2: Look at page 2 of Reading Strategies book1 and read the article. Tell your partner what you understood.
Task 3: Now read through the article again and see if any of the words on your list in task 1 appear in the article. If they do, what are their word partnerships? Complete the table below.
Task 4: Read through the article again and complete the language bank above with some of the word partnerships you can find in the text.
Task 5: Select 10 of the most useful word partnerships and use a dictionary to find out what they mean, or ask your teacher what they mean. Then try to learn them.
Task 6: Now work with a student from another group and tell them what your article was about. Make sure you use lots of word partnerships from your language bank.
Teaching notes:
1.
Divide your class into three or four groups and have each group working on a different text. You can then reform the groups to make a natural information gap activity.
2.
Have some dictionaries to hand so students can check the meaning of their word partnerships. Alternatively, you can explain the meaning yourself. Encourage them to look for more word partnerships in the example sentences in the dictionaries.
3.
Spend some time after task 5 on the pronunciation of the word partnerships.
4.
Note how this sequence of tasks uses the principles of the lexical approach, in that the focus is on MWIs, the students choose their own language items to learn, and emphasis is on memorizing and using the new language rather than studying descriptions of it.
Example 2: Working with chunks
From Touchstone Book1 (Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Task 1:
Write up the following list of words on the board and ask the students to write a sentence using each word.
famous (adj)
tour (n)
go (v)
find (v)
walk (v)
order (v)
help (v)
trip (n)
Task 2: Now turn to page 92 in Touchstone book1. Find the words below in the article on that page and complete the chunks. Look at the example below.
be famous for sth
____ tour ____
____ go ____
____ find ____
____ walk ____
____ order ____
____ help ____
____ trip _____
Task 3: Now sort the chunks into groups. You decide what the groups are and how many there are.
Task 4: Now look at your sentences from task 1. Correct them if you think they are wrong.
Task 5: Now write some more sentences using the chunks from task 2.
Teaching notes:
1.
After the first task, mark the students' sentences, but don't correct them, or explain why they are wrong. Just let the student know which ones are correct, and which ones are not. In your marking focus on errors made with chunks.
2.
Note that some chunks include a word before the headword, such as be famous for, while some chunks begin with the headword, like walk down to. Let the students discover this for themselves. You can help them here by writing these two examples on the board and asking students what the difference between them is. Students can then sort the chunks again into the two groups: chunks beginning with the headword, and chunks not beginning with the headword.
3.
When correcting their final sentences, again, just focus your correction on the correct use of the chunks.
4.
When explaining the MWIs, focus on the meaning of the total package, rather than on the meaning of individual words in the package.
5.
Notice the lexical approach principles here: explanations are focused on meaning and use, and the emphasis is on creating awareness and production of actual language, rather than memorizing rules about the language.
Example 3: Working with set-phrases
From Touchstone Book1 (Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Task 1: Sort these set-phrases into the table below.
If I could just come in here …
If I might just finish.
In any case …
Just a moment.
Look, I'm sorry to interrupt but, …
May I come in here?
May I interrupt you for a moment?
May I?
Oh please do.
Please let me finish.
So, to return to…
Sorry to interrupt, but…
Sorry.
Well,…
What was I saying? Oh yes.
Where was I? Oh yes.
Yes, of course.
Yes.
You've interrupted me. Anyway, …
Can I add here that …
Can I add something?
Can I just finish?
Can I just point out that …
Coming back to what I was saying earlier, …
Excuse me for interrupting, but …
Excuse me.
Well, as I was saying before I was interrupted,…
Going back to what I was saying before …
Go on then.
Hang on.
Hold on a moment.
I don't mean to interrupt, but …
I'd like to add something here if I may.
Sure.
To get back to what I was saying…
Well, anyway, as I said before…
interrupting
preventing/allowing
returning to your point
Task 2: Now choose two set-phrases from each category and memorize them, practicing the pronunciation.
Task 3: Now turn to page 113 in Touchstone Book1 and have a conversation about your weekend. Use the set-phrases above in your conversation.
Teaching notes:
1.
Because set-phrases are totally fixed, students need to learn them accurately. Spend time drilling the pronunciation with connected speech and good intonation.
2.
Students sometimes ask for the meaning of individual words in set-phrases. You can explain them, but it's very important to tell students that often the meaning of the total package is more important than the meaning of the individual words in the package. Remember: the basic principle is that words are never used alone. Students should focus on the overall meaning of the set-phrase as it fits into one of the categories above.
3.
Give students A and B in each pair a conflicting set of objectives: A has to get to the end of their description of their weekend, i.e. Sunday night, while B has to prevent this by interrupting and asking questions.
4.
As they do the speaking task, monitor their use of the set-phrases, by walking around the class and listening to what they say. If you have a big class, get the students to change partners and do the speaking task again to give you more time to monitor.
5.
Again, the principles of the lexical approach apply here, in the emphasis of explaining meaning rather than form, in the focus on MWIs which have a pragmatic value, and in the focus on immediate use.
Conclusion
In our experience, teachers who have introduced the Leximodel into their classroom have found that it is quite easy to teach and that it is extremely useful in guiding the preparation of teaching materials. Even more importantly, students have been overwhelmingly responsive. Students find that it is an easily understandable tool which allows them to bring order to the huge number of MWIs which they are exposed to in learning a new language. The Leximodel seems to help them make sense of the lexicon, and increase their learner autonomy. We hope that this article will give you some confidence in using a lexical approach in your classrooms.
Further Reading
Here are our suggestions for further reading on the lexical approach:
* Batstone, Rob (1996). “Key Concepts in ELT: Noticing.” ELT Journal 50(3) 273.
* Brand, Q. (2004) Biz English for Busy People –Email Writing, Taipei: Beta Multimedia Publishing .
* Bolitho, R, Carter, R, Hughes, R, Ivanic, R, Masuhara, H, and Tomlinson, B (2003). “Ten Questions about Language Awareness.” ELT Journal 57/3.
* Lewis, Michael (1993), The Lexical Approach, Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
* Lewis, Michael (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory Into Practice. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
* Lewis, Michael (2000). “Language in the lexical approach”. In Teaching Collocation: Further Developments In The Lexical Approach, Michael Lewis (ed.), 126-154. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
* Schmitt, Norbert (2000). “Key Concepts in ELT: Lexical Chunks” ELT Journal 54(4): 400-401.
* Thornbury, Scott (1997). “Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote “noticing” ELT Journal 51(4): 326-334.
作者簡介
◎ Quentin Brand is a teacher, author and consultant of some 15 years experience, with 6 years experience teaching business English in Taiwan. His current interests include the teaching of writing using a lexical approach and corpus linguistics. His e-mail: quentin.brand@msa.hinet.net
◎ Joseph Lavallee has been teaching English in China and Taiwan for more than 7 years and is currently a faculty member at Ming Chuan University here in Taipei. His interests include reading in the EFL classroom, corpus linguistics and the lexical approach. His e-mail: lavallee@mcu.edu.tw
[1] Lexicon literally means “dictionary”. It is the name given by theorists to the hypothetical memory bank of language items which form the basis for language production and comprehension.
Appendix
◎Answers to tasks
Task 1:
such things
such a large
in such a manner that v.p.
such a big n.p.
such a lot of n.p.
such a case
in such a way that v.p.
such a success
such a long time
such a good idea
such a large amount so busy
so many n.p.
so that v.p.
so cold that v.p.
so much n.p.
so far
so funny that v.p.
so easy
so enjoyable
so excited
so good
so important
so kind
so long
Task 2:
set-phrases
chunks
word partnerships
…so that's ready to go.
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
Could I have some more sugar, please?
I think we should wait.
If you have any questions, please call me.
In conclusion, I feel the time is right for…
It would be better to wait and see.
Would you mind…?
It's raining cats and dogs
Let's turn now to profits.
On the other hand, …
There's every possibility of a typhoon.
Time and tide wait for no man.
What are you talking about?
What do you think of my new….? be based on
be busy V/ing
be busy with s/th
be capable of
be committed to V/ing
deal with
decide to
for example
for many years
in and out
of course
in the meantime
in the middle (of the)
take on
up and down traffic jams
dangerous crosswalks
air pollution
encounter difficulties
find an easy solution
have a break
have a situation
potluck dinner
party time
answering machine
take a risk
take action
take precautions
a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity
Example 2 task 2:
be famous for s/th
walking tour
go to
find out
walk down to
order s/th from s/o
help s/o V
trip to
Example 3 task 1:
interrupting
allowing
returning to your point
If I could just come in here …
Look, I'm sorry to interrupt but, …
May I come in here?
May I interrupt you for a moment?
May I?
Sorry to interrupt, but…
Can I add here that …
Can I add something?
Can I just point out that …
Excuse me for interrupting, but …
Excuse me.
I don't mean to interrupt, but …
I'd like to add something here if I may.
Sorry.
Oh please do.
Yes, of course.
Yes.
Go on then.
Sure.
In any case …
So, to return to…
Well,…
What was I saying? Oh yes.
Where was I? Oh yes.
Anyway, …
Coming back to what I was saying earlier, …
Well, as I was saying before I was interrupted,…
Going back to what I was saying before …
To get back to what I was saying…
Well, anyway, as I said before…
preventing
Hang on.
Hold on a moment.
You've interrupted me.
Can I just finish?
If I might just finish.
Just a moment.
Please let me finish.
Sorry.
Introduction
The communicative approach has become very widely practiced in Taiwan language classrooms. Teachers and students are now used to the idea that the greater portion of classroom time should be spent on communicative task-based activities, such as information gap, communicative games, and topic-based or free conversation. This is certainly a marked improvement on the previous grammar-translation method. However, in recent years, there has been increasing mention of a lexical approach, with publishers such as Thomson Learning (Innovations, Conversation Gambits, Conversation Lessons) Macmillan, (the In Company series, the Inside Out series, Email English etc.), producing coursebooks and materials using it. Like many teachers in Taiwan, you may think: “I've heard of the lexical approach, but I don't know what it is, I don't know how to use it, and I don't know why I should use it.” The rest of this article will focus on answering these concerns.
What is the lexical approach?
The lexical approach was invented by Michael Lewis and Jimmy Hill in the early 1990s, and is now quite common in some well known coursebooks, including those mentioned above. It is based on two key principles:
1.
the grammar/vocabulary view of language is invalid
2.
collocation is central to language and language learning
The lexical approach is a classroom practice that reflects the current understanding of language as consisting of a vast collection of multi-word items. For most teachers and ESL professionals, our previous understanding of language was that it consisted of grammar patterns with vocabulary slotted in. Vocabulary has traditionally been taught as single word items, with collocates and idioms introduced for a bit of color in the “boring” grammar-based classroom. The current view of language accepted by most theorists, however, is that collocation is central and that the border between grammar and vocabulary is much more blurred than we thought. Instead of the grammar/vocabulary divide, teachers and learners should think of language as consisting of a very large collection of multi-word items (MWI) called the lexicon[1]. The focus in this teaching approach is on helping learners master this lexicon.
In many cases, the best ways to master the lexicon, and therefore to produce language, are already quite familiar to teachers in Taiwan. We all know that, as Stephen Krashen has told us, large amounts of comprehensible input (with graded readers, etc.) are essential. We all know that there are times when a “focus on form” is appropriate, through noticing and language awareness activities. And we all know that communicative activities have an important place in the language classroom. What the lexical approach does is to combine all of these good teaching ideas with a better awareness of the real nature of language and language learning.
Why should I use the lexical approach with my students?
In our experience, problems that students encounter include the following:
“I know the word, but not how to use it.”
“I understand all the words in the sentence but I still don't understand the sentence.”
“I don't know how to study on my own.”
“I do well on my tests but I have a hard time talking with foreigners.”
“I've been studying for many years, but I seem to be stuck at the same level.”
Because the lexical approach emphasizes collocation, getting the students to move from focusing on the meaning of single words to learning how to use multi-word items is the single most helpful thing they can do to overcome the above problems. Encouraging greater awareness of how language operates (rather than learning more and more grammar rules) is another.
In the lexical approach, the traditional present-practice-produce lesson structure is replaced by an observe–hypothesize–experiment paradigm. This goes hand-in-hand with abandoning the grammar/vocabulary model in favor of a lexicon-based understanding of language. Students are encouraged to observe patterns of language--usually as multi-word items, hypothesize about their form, meaning, and use and then experiment using them to meet their own communicative needs. In practical terms, this means activities such as identifying and extracting language items in authentic written and spoken texts or sorting previously-selected language items into categories, noticing how the language items are used in a familiar context, and then using the language items in more unfamiliar contexts.
Let's take an example using the teaching of “so” and “such”. A traditional grammar translation or even a communicative “focus on form” approach would focus on a description of the grammar rule. (for example: ‘so’ is usually used to modify an adjective or an adverb, while ‘such’ is usually used to modify a noun phrase). A lexical approach, by contrast, would teach the most frequent words which occur with ‘so’ and the most frequent words which occur with ‘such’ as single lexical items, which we call Multi Word Items, or MWIs. You'll see some examples in task 1 below. (These MWIs can be easily found with a bit of Corpus Linguistics (CL) research.). To help you understand this concept better, you might want to try the following task. This task is designed for teachers and readers of this article, but you might like to try it with your students if they are intermediate level or above.
Task 1: Sort the following items into groups. You decide how many groups, and what the groups are.
such things
so much n.p.
so far
such a large
in such a manner that v.p.
so funny that v.p.
such a lot of n.p.
so many n.p.
such a big n.p.
so that v.p.
such a case
so cold that v.p.
so busy in such a way that v.p.
so easy
such a success
so enjoyable
so excited
so good
such a long time
so important
so kind
such a good idea
so long
such a large amount
so quickly
Two points are worth stressing here.
1.
The personal choice of categories allows the learner to build personally meaningful connections in their memory, helping them to expand their lexicon. Students may not even be able to articulate the reasons for their categorizations, or be able to describe their categories, but that is not the point. “If our target is the creation of effective learning conditions, [then] the students write their own grammar rules.” (Lewis, The Lexical Approach. p.149) The teacher's role is to provide correct MWIs for the students to categorize, to show the students some categories which might be useful to the students after they have done the sorting task (in this case two groups: MWIs with so and MWIs with such), and then to set up meaningful tasks in which the students can become familiar with and use the language.
2.
Rather than teaching this area of the language as a grammar rule to be applied, teaching it instead as fixed lexical items, or MWIs, to be memorized and recalled, takes advantage of one of the strengths of learners in Taiwan. Learners in Taiwan excel at memorizing items. So it makes more sense to give them language as lexical items to use instead of teaching them language as rules to be applied. With a lexical approach, the learning style used in Taiwan thus becomes a major advantage. Students who can remember large numbers of useful language items are able to communicate quickly and effectively.
What problems might teachers encounter with the lexical approach?
In talking to teachers about the lexical approach, the authors have noticed some of the following frequently occurring responses.
“The lexical approach sounds like a good idea, but how can I use it to build a syllabus?”
“What level is it for?”
“The lexicon is too big! How can I make sense of it in a way that helps my students?”
“At least teaching language as grammar and vocabulary gives me a systematic way to present English to my students.”
“It just seems too vague to be practical.”
A central theme in all of the objections is that there does not seem to be any easy way of categorizing the MWIs which make up the lexicon. At first, the lexicon simply seems like a huge unwieldy collection of multi-word items. The rest of this article will present a way of categorizing the lexicon which is specifically designed for classroom use, for students of a lower intermediate level or above, for teachers and students: the Leximodel. We'll present the Leximodel first and then show how you can use it with your coursebook to bring the lexicon to the center of your teaching.
The Leximodel
The first thing a student needs to know about an MWI is how fixed or fluid it is. The more fixed an MWI, the easier it is to learn by heart, while more fluid MWIs on the other hand, may require that the students learn more options. For example, “listen” is usually always followed by “to”, so we can call this a very fixed MWI, while “apple” can be followed by “cart”, “pie”, “tree”, “tart”. This MWI is more fluid. We can therefore say that MWIs can be placed along a spectrum of predictability, according to how fixed or fluid they are, or in other words, according to how easy it is to predict the next word.
The spectrum of predictability is the basis of the Leximodel. MWIs can be roughly categorized into three very broad groups and placed on the spectrum.
1.
The first group we call chunks. Chunks combine a meaning word (e.g.: listen) and a function word (e.g.: to) in any combination. They are fixed from left to right (along the horizontal axis) (listen comes before to) but are more fluid in some of the vertical slots (listen can sometimes be listened or listening). To give another example of what we mean by this: in the chunk provide sb with sth, the words must come in this order, (if you switch sb and sth then you need to change the preposition, creating in effect a new chunk: provide sth to sb) but sb and sth can be any noun or noun phrase. Focusing on chunks will have the effect of improving grammar, as many verb tenses, passive and conditional constructions, dependent prepositions, two object verbs etc. can be memorized as chunks. Chunks are placed in the center of the spectrum of predictability, as they combine fixed and fluid elements.
2.
The second group of MWIs we call set-phrases. These are longer and more fixed than chunks and typically are formed by combinations of chunks. Set-phrases usually have a beginning or an end or both. How are you? I'm fine, thanks, and you? Would you mind Ving? Could you tell me…? In this essay I will try to V…, please do not hesitate to contact me. are all examples of set-phrases, some from conversation, and some from writing. You can see from these examples that set-phrases are the transactional elements of language, whether the everyday phrases we use in conversation, or the organization phrases we use in academic or business writing. Focusing on set-phrases will have the effect of improving the functional, transactional language that we all need to conduct our lives in the foreign language. Because they are more fixed than chunks, we put set-phrases to the left on the spectrum of predictability.
3.
At the other end of the spectrum, the fluid end on the right, we have our third group of MWIs, which we call word partnerships. Word partnerships are two or more meaning words (such as apple and pie) which appear momentarily together in a text. The range of subsequent words available to the head word is determined by the topic of the text. For example, the word crisis is more likely to form partnerships with words like hostage, political, national, serious etc. in a newspaper story about a current event, while if it appears in a business report it might appear with a different group of words, such as growing, fiscal, financial or cash. Further, if the same word appears in a psychological report, it might appear with words like mid-life, identity, family or personal. Focusing on word partnerships is a very efficient way of increasing vocabulary, as they are the MWIs most closely associated with the meaning of the text, or the topic of the conversation. The completed Leximodel thus looks like this:
You might want to try the following task now to consolidate your understanding of the Leximodel. The answers are at the end of the article.
Task 2: Sort these MWIs into the table below.
…so that's ready to go.
a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
air pollution
be based on
be busy V/ing
be busy with s/th
be capable of
be committed to V/ing
traffic jams
dangerous crosswalks
Could I have some more sugar, please?
deal with
decide to
encounter difficulties
find an easy solution
for example
for many years
have a break
have a situation
I think we should wait.
If you have any questions, please call me. in and out
In conclusion, I feel the time is right for…
in the meantime
in the middle (of the)
potluck dinner
party time
It would be better to wait and see.
Would you mind…?
It's raining cats and dogs
Let's turn now to profits.
of course
On the other hand, …
answering machine
take a risk
take action
take on
take precautions
There's every possibility of a typhoon.
Time and tide wait for no man.
up and down
What are you talking about?
What do you think of my new….?
set-phrases chunks word partnerships
How can teachers use the Leximodel in the class?
The Leximodel is a classroom tool for teachers and learners to help them categorize the lexicon while always keeping them focused directly on language itself and not on descriptions of what the language is. The advantage of the Leximodel for teachers and students is that there are only three very broad categories, the categories are quite easy to understand and relate quite simply to what the students already know or can grasp intuitively about language (the meaning/function distinction is a good example), and the names of the categories are appropriate and easy to remember. Above all, the Leximodel will get your students to move away from being too concerned with the meaning of single words and getting them to focus on the way MWIs are used.
The Leximodel works best for students who are of a lower intermediate level or above, who are already equipped with some awareness of the basic vocabulary and grammar of English. However, even with elementary students or beginners, when presenting new vocabulary and grammar for the first time, teachers should always bear in mind the principle of the Leximodel, which is that words never appear alone. For example, when you are teaching sense verbs for the first time, remember to teach them as listen to, look at and so on, rather than just teaching listen and look. If you can train your students from the beginning to look at language as a collection of MWIs, and get them to focus on the individual MWIs, you will be giving them a solid foundation for lifelong language learning.
A useful principle to remember about the Leximodel and which levels to use it with is this: lower level students need more set-phrases because they need immediately useful language to help them survive in the foreign language community. Advanced students, on the other hand, need more word partnerships because they need to be able to express themselves on wide range of quite specialist topics. Lower levels find it much easier to remember long strings of quite easy words which are immediately useful: (Could you help me?), while higher levels have more language ability to cope with the fluidity of low frequency word partnerships (rapid/racing/slow/faint pulse). When teaching low levels, teach high frequency chunks, and when teaching high levels, teach low frequency chunks. This means that as students begin their journey of language learning, they start on the left hand side of the Leximodel (the fixed side) and progress gradually along the spectrum of predictability, increasing their level, until they reach very low frequency obscure or specialist word partnerships on the fluid side on the right.
We're now going to show you some tasks based on the principles of the lexical approach discussed above, which apply the Leximodel to some popular coursebooks.
Example 1: Working with word partnerships
From Reading Strategies Book1 (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
Task 1: You are going to read an article called “Music & moods”. With your partner write a list of words you think might appear in the article.
Task 2: Look at page 2 of Reading Strategies book1 and read the article. Tell your partner what you understood.
Task 3: Now read through the article again and see if any of the words on your list in task 1 appear in the article. If they do, what are their word partnerships? Complete the table below.
Task 4: Read through the article again and complete the language bank above with some of the word partnerships you can find in the text.
Task 5: Select 10 of the most useful word partnerships and use a dictionary to find out what they mean, or ask your teacher what they mean. Then try to learn them.
Task 6: Now work with a student from another group and tell them what your article was about. Make sure you use lots of word partnerships from your language bank.
Teaching notes:
1.
Divide your class into three or four groups and have each group working on a different text. You can then reform the groups to make a natural information gap activity.
2.
Have some dictionaries to hand so students can check the meaning of their word partnerships. Alternatively, you can explain the meaning yourself. Encourage them to look for more word partnerships in the example sentences in the dictionaries.
3.
Spend some time after task 5 on the pronunciation of the word partnerships.
4.
Note how this sequence of tasks uses the principles of the lexical approach, in that the focus is on MWIs, the students choose their own language items to learn, and emphasis is on memorizing and using the new language rather than studying descriptions of it.
Example 2: Working with chunks
From Touchstone Book1 (Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Task 1:
Write up the following list of words on the board and ask the students to write a sentence using each word.
famous (adj)
tour (n)
go (v)
find (v)
walk (v)
order (v)
help (v)
trip (n)
Task 2: Now turn to page 92 in Touchstone book1. Find the words below in the article on that page and complete the chunks. Look at the example below.
be famous for sth
____ tour ____
____ go ____
____ find ____
____ walk ____
____ order ____
____ help ____
____ trip _____
Task 3: Now sort the chunks into groups. You decide what the groups are and how many there are.
Task 4: Now look at your sentences from task 1. Correct them if you think they are wrong.
Task 5: Now write some more sentences using the chunks from task 2.
Teaching notes:
1.
After the first task, mark the students' sentences, but don't correct them, or explain why they are wrong. Just let the student know which ones are correct, and which ones are not. In your marking focus on errors made with chunks.
2.
Note that some chunks include a word before the headword, such as be famous for, while some chunks begin with the headword, like walk down to. Let the students discover this for themselves. You can help them here by writing these two examples on the board and asking students what the difference between them is. Students can then sort the chunks again into the two groups: chunks beginning with the headword, and chunks not beginning with the headword.
3.
When correcting their final sentences, again, just focus your correction on the correct use of the chunks.
4.
When explaining the MWIs, focus on the meaning of the total package, rather than on the meaning of individual words in the package.
5.
Notice the lexical approach principles here: explanations are focused on meaning and use, and the emphasis is on creating awareness and production of actual language, rather than memorizing rules about the language.
Example 3: Working with set-phrases
From Touchstone Book1 (Cambridge University Press, 2005)
Task 1: Sort these set-phrases into the table below.
If I could just come in here …
If I might just finish.
In any case …
Just a moment.
Look, I'm sorry to interrupt but, …
May I come in here?
May I interrupt you for a moment?
May I?
Oh please do.
Please let me finish.
So, to return to…
Sorry to interrupt, but…
Sorry.
Well,…
What was I saying? Oh yes.
Where was I? Oh yes.
Yes, of course.
Yes.
You've interrupted me. Anyway, …
Can I add here that …
Can I add something?
Can I just finish?
Can I just point out that …
Coming back to what I was saying earlier, …
Excuse me for interrupting, but …
Excuse me.
Well, as I was saying before I was interrupted,…
Going back to what I was saying before …
Go on then.
Hang on.
Hold on a moment.
I don't mean to interrupt, but …
I'd like to add something here if I may.
Sure.
To get back to what I was saying…
Well, anyway, as I said before…
interrupting
preventing/allowing
returning to your point
Task 2: Now choose two set-phrases from each category and memorize them, practicing the pronunciation.
Task 3: Now turn to page 113 in Touchstone Book1 and have a conversation about your weekend. Use the set-phrases above in your conversation.
Teaching notes:
1.
Because set-phrases are totally fixed, students need to learn them accurately. Spend time drilling the pronunciation with connected speech and good intonation.
2.
Students sometimes ask for the meaning of individual words in set-phrases. You can explain them, but it's very important to tell students that often the meaning of the total package is more important than the meaning of the individual words in the package. Remember: the basic principle is that words are never used alone. Students should focus on the overall meaning of the set-phrase as it fits into one of the categories above.
3.
Give students A and B in each pair a conflicting set of objectives: A has to get to the end of their description of their weekend, i.e. Sunday night, while B has to prevent this by interrupting and asking questions.
4.
As they do the speaking task, monitor their use of the set-phrases, by walking around the class and listening to what they say. If you have a big class, get the students to change partners and do the speaking task again to give you more time to monitor.
5.
Again, the principles of the lexical approach apply here, in the emphasis of explaining meaning rather than form, in the focus on MWIs which have a pragmatic value, and in the focus on immediate use.
Conclusion
In our experience, teachers who have introduced the Leximodel into their classroom have found that it is quite easy to teach and that it is extremely useful in guiding the preparation of teaching materials. Even more importantly, students have been overwhelmingly responsive. Students find that it is an easily understandable tool which allows them to bring order to the huge number of MWIs which they are exposed to in learning a new language. The Leximodel seems to help them make sense of the lexicon, and increase their learner autonomy. We hope that this article will give you some confidence in using a lexical approach in your classrooms.
Further Reading
Here are our suggestions for further reading on the lexical approach:
* Batstone, Rob (1996). “Key Concepts in ELT: Noticing.” ELT Journal 50(3) 273.
* Brand, Q. (2004) Biz English for Busy People –Email Writing, Taipei: Beta Multimedia Publishing .
* Bolitho, R, Carter, R, Hughes, R, Ivanic, R, Masuhara, H, and Tomlinson, B (2003). “Ten Questions about Language Awareness.” ELT Journal 57/3.
* Lewis, Michael (1993), The Lexical Approach, Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
* Lewis, Michael (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory Into Practice. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
* Lewis, Michael (2000). “Language in the lexical approach”. In Teaching Collocation: Further Developments In The Lexical Approach, Michael Lewis (ed.), 126-154. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
* Schmitt, Norbert (2000). “Key Concepts in ELT: Lexical Chunks” ELT Journal 54(4): 400-401.
* Thornbury, Scott (1997). “Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote “noticing” ELT Journal 51(4): 326-334.
作者簡介
◎ Quentin Brand is a teacher, author and consultant of some 15 years experience, with 6 years experience teaching business English in Taiwan. His current interests include the teaching of writing using a lexical approach and corpus linguistics. His e-mail: quentin.brand@msa.hinet.net
◎ Joseph Lavallee has been teaching English in China and Taiwan for more than 7 years and is currently a faculty member at Ming Chuan University here in Taipei. His interests include reading in the EFL classroom, corpus linguistics and the lexical approach. His e-mail: lavallee@mcu.edu.tw
[1] Lexicon literally means “dictionary”. It is the name given by theorists to the hypothetical memory bank of language items which form the basis for language production and comprehension.
Appendix
◎Answers to tasks
Task 1:
such things
such a large
in such a manner that v.p.
such a big n.p.
such a lot of n.p.
such a case
in such a way that v.p.
such a success
such a long time
such a good idea
such a large amount so busy
so many n.p.
so that v.p.
so cold that v.p.
so much n.p.
so far
so funny that v.p.
so easy
so enjoyable
so excited
so good
so important
so kind
so long
Task 2:
set-phrases
chunks
word partnerships
…so that's ready to go.
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
Could I have some more sugar, please?
I think we should wait.
If you have any questions, please call me.
In conclusion, I feel the time is right for…
It would be better to wait and see.
Would you mind…?
It's raining cats and dogs
Let's turn now to profits.
On the other hand, …
There's every possibility of a typhoon.
Time and tide wait for no man.
What are you talking about?
What do you think of my new….? be based on
be busy V/ing
be busy with s/th
be capable of
be committed to V/ing
deal with
decide to
for example
for many years
in and out
of course
in the meantime
in the middle (of the)
take on
up and down traffic jams
dangerous crosswalks
air pollution
encounter difficulties
find an easy solution
have a break
have a situation
potluck dinner
party time
answering machine
take a risk
take action
take precautions
a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity
Example 2 task 2:
be famous for s/th
walking tour
go to
find out
walk down to
order s/th from s/o
help s/o V
trip to
Example 3 task 1:
interrupting
allowing
returning to your point
If I could just come in here …
Look, I'm sorry to interrupt but, …
May I come in here?
May I interrupt you for a moment?
May I?
Sorry to interrupt, but…
Can I add here that …
Can I add something?
Can I just point out that …
Excuse me for interrupting, but …
Excuse me.
I don't mean to interrupt, but …
I'd like to add something here if I may.
Sorry.
Oh please do.
Yes, of course.
Yes.
Go on then.
Sure.
In any case …
So, to return to…
Well,…
What was I saying? Oh yes.
Where was I? Oh yes.
Anyway, …
Coming back to what I was saying earlier, …
Well, as I was saying before I was interrupted,…
Going back to what I was saying before …
To get back to what I was saying…
Well, anyway, as I said before…
preventing
Hang on.
Hold on a moment.
You've interrupted me.
Can I just finish?
If I might just finish.
Just a moment.
Please let me finish.
Sorry.
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